Buddhist Spectrum
The genre of Jataka Legends
Dr Senarath Tennakoon
The Pali Cannon is also known as the Tipitaka (three baskets). The
Vinaya Pitaka (monastic law), Sutta Pitaka (The Buddha's Discourses) and
Abhidhamma (scholastic treaties) are these three baskets. The fifth and
last division of the Sutta Pitaka is caleed Khuddaka Nikaya (Minor
collection). Under the Khuddaka Nikaya there are fifteen works in all
and the title of the tenth book is the Jataka (Birth Stories) which
contains 547 stories of the Buddha's previous lives.
The Cariyapitaka, the fifteenth minor text under Khuddaka Nikaya,
contains 35 Jataka stories in verse form illustrating seven out of the
ten perfections (paramis) – generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom,
energy, patience, truthfulness, determination, loving, kindness and
equanimity of the Bodhisattvas (beings oriented towards
enlightenment/Aspirant Buddha). These match the corresponding Jataka
stories in prose.
idiom and metaphor
The Pali Jataka contains 550 birth stories arranged in 22 books (Keown,
2003). In Sri Lanka during the reign of King Parakramabahu IV
(1303-1333) the Jataka tales were translated to Sinhala from the
PaliJataka-atthakatha by a Board of learned monks headed by Buddhist
priest Medankara. There were also Indian priests in this Board. This
great work in prose came to be known as the pansiya panas Jataka potha
(Book of Five Hundred and Fifty Birth Stories) and it remains as a
greatly venerated book and the aged Sri Lankan Buddhists and the
Buddhist monks refer to it as the Jataka potha vahanse (the venerable
Jataka book). The Buddha was a great story teller. He spoke in an idiom
that everybody could appreciate. He used similes and metaphor relating
to the field, the field ridge, paddy, rice, empties, goad, plough,
winnowing, fan, oven, cowherds, carts, grain and water (Sri Sarada,
1998). For instance in the Chakkupala Jataka the Buddha explained why
Bhikku Chakkupala has become blind.
In a previous birth this bhikku has been an ophthalmologist who
undertook to treat a woman with an eye condition and cured her
completely. But this woman to evade payment for the consultation said
that her ailment was not cured. The ophthalmologist knew that she was
telling a lie. So he prescribed another medicine which caused permanent
blindness in her. While relating this Jataka, the Buddha uttered the
first verse given in the Dhammapada viz.” All mental states have mind as
their forerunner, mind is their chief, and they are mind made. If one
speaks or acts, with a defiled mind, then suffering follows one even as
the wheel follows the hoof of the draught – ox (Rahula 1959).”
The Buddha has narrated five-hundred and fifty tales about His past
births which are called Jataka Tales and these have become part of world
literature. The Buddha has declared to the Monks that He could remember
any number of His past births and the events that have taken place and
could extend His divine eye as far as He wished to see beings and life
events. He knew the factors and reasons that caused different birth
states of beings (Samyutta Nikaya-Kassapa Samutta). The Buddha displayed
nine aspects of his unusual wisdom.
These are insight knowledge (vipassana nana), projecting multiple
body forms in any place (manomaya iddhi nana), psychic power of changing
the body into many forms (iddivida nana), clair audience (Dibba Sotan
ana), ability to read the minds of others (paracitta vijanana nana),
reminiscence of ones own past births (pubbenivasanussati nana), clair
vision (dibba cakku nana), the knowledge that arises by eradicating
defilements (asavakkhaya nana), and super natural knowledge (Buddha
nana) respectively. The Buddha has declared that the subconscious mind
is radiant, clear and lucid. It gets contaminated with the blemishes
that come from outside. The Buddha has observed that the human female
attracts the man's mind so tenaciously. (Sri Pemaloka, 1981).
A jataka story cannot easily be classified within a single genre as
it may have elements of a mystery story and moral fable. It may resemble
a social or psychological drama. One Jataka story titled Kulavaka
Jatakaya deals with a Buddhist monk who drank water without filtering.
But the Buddha makes it a beginning to relate several past births,
several planes of existence and human and non human characters in a
round about way. Any type of character could be identified in these
stories, Martin Wickramasinghe who studied the Jataka tales in depth
observed that these stories have been designed and structured for the
insightful penetration of the human mind (Alwis, 1985). Rhys Davids has
observed that some Jataka tales have originated from Indian folk tales
and these illuminate some important aspects of the Buddha Dhamma. For
instance chullahansa Jataka and the Mahasara Jataka have their origins
in the Indian folk lore (Sumanadaja, 1996). In the Chullahansa Jataka
there is a harrowing narration of the Buddha's arched enemy, Devdatta's
attempt to destroy the Buddha, once by hurling a huge stone from the top
of Gijjakuta crag that injured the Buddha's foot, and later by rousing a
drunk elephant (Nalagiri) towards the Buddha. But the Buddha's disciple
Venerable Ananda tried to sacrifice his life so as to save the Buddha.
But the Buddha disallowed Ananda's attempt and He himself tamed the wild
elephant Nalagiri.
Previous birth
The benevolent action of Venerable Ananda became an issue for
discourse at the Dhamma Forum (Dam Saba Mandapa) and the Buddha observed
that Venerable Ananda in a previous birth too saved His life and related
the Chullahansa Jataka. In this jataka the principal characters are the
swan king Druturasta, the swan commander in chief Sumuka, the hunter (Veddha)
and the king. Druturasta was caught in a trap devised by the hunter and
Sumaka has come to save him ready to sacrifice his life. When the hunter
came there he was surprised to see Sumaka too there without leaving the
place of danger.
Sumaka explained to the hunter that his king was the trapped swan and
that he would sacrifice his life in order to save his king. The hunter
changed his evil mind and released the swan king from the trap. Then the
swan king, the swan commander and the hunter appeared before the king
where matters were discussed. The swan king preached the Dhamma to the
king and others. The hunter was rewarded with a land, vehicle, house and
gold. The Buddha declared that in this story the hunter was priest
Jantha, the king was priest Sariputta, the swan commander Sumuka was
venerable Ananda and the swan king Druturastra was the Buddha himself as
the aspirant Buddha (bodhisattva). In the Mahasara Jataka the theme of
the current discussion has been the wisdom and cleverness of venerable
Ananda who has devised appropriate strategies for finding king Kosol's
lost precious jewel (chudamanikaya). The Buddha asked the monks what
were they discussing about when He approached the forum (Damsaba Mandapa)
and began to praise venerable Ananda's strategic approach and wisdom.
The Buddha declared that Ananda has been such a clever person even in
his previous births and related the Mahasara Jataka. The past story
revolved around the loss of a queen's precious gold necklace called
Mahasara. She had kept this necklace on the bank of a river when she was
bathing with her retinue. A servant woman was stationed to have an eye
on the queen's valuable royal garments including the Mahasara. But at
the end of the bath this very particular necklace was missing and the
servant woman to escape death punishment said that some unidentified
person robbed it and ran off. The king ordered a search for the robber
and the guards caught a person who happened to be running away in fear
of the approaching guards.
This person through fear told a big lie that he robbed it and gave it
to the mayor (Sitana), but the mayor said that he gave it to the chief
minister (purohitha), the purohita said that it was given to the royal
musician (gandarva) and he in turn said that the queen's necklace was
with the royal prostitute (vysya) which she denied.
Now all these suspects were imprisoned. The bodhisattva happened to
be the chief advisor to the king during that period of time. He
considered the matter with great erudition.
He thought that such a valuable necklace could not have been stolen
by a human person as it was well guarded and looked after. He himself
inquired into the facts from the suspects and realized that the suspects
were innocent. What he noticed was that there were monkeys all over the
place where the queen used to swim and bathe.
So he devised a strategic method to find the lost necklace. He
ordered the guards to catch all the female monkeys and every money's
neck was tied with a red string. The monkeys thought that they were
wearing golden necklaces and were proud of themselves. But there was a
female monkey who was hiding somewhere and did not wish to wear a red
string.
Real culprit
When the other monkeys approached her she showed them a precious gold
necklace that she was preserving. The guards caught her as she was the
real culprit who had stolen the queen's Mahasara while the servant girl
was looking somewhere else while the queen and her retinue have been
swimming.
The bodhisattva gave the necklace to the king. Then the Buddha
declared that venerable Ananda has been the king and the Buddha had been
the wise advisor (bodhisattva) to this king. Structurally any jataka
story is complex but satisfying and interesting.
They are written in the present tense in the first person narrative
style. There are glimpses into past lives and previous life events.
Flashback recounting events and characters are brought forward
establishing wonderful linkages and connections. In the end the Buddha
reveals the hidden relationships and clarifies latent issues and
characters. In most of the stories the protagonist appears to be the
Buddha. In a typical jataka story a uniform format may be identified –
the current tale (paccupanna vattu) followed by the past tale (atita
vattu), stanzas related to the jataka story (jtaka gata), interpretation
of the stanzas (vaiviyakarana), elucidation of the moral (dharamavadaya)
and establishing past and present linkages (samodanaya) respectively.
However in some jataka stories the stanzas are not observed.
In the Nanda Jataka Ahiansaka Jataka and MahaKapina Jataka the
vulnerable psychological aspects of the human mind are exemplified. In
the Nanda Jataka a servant boy becomes proud and scolds his master
whenever he stands over the place where his master's dead father had
buried his treasure.
The servant was the only living person who knew the secret place. An
innocent and intelligent student becoming a criminal because of the
jealousy of his peers and his tutor is reflected in the Ahinsaka Jataka.
Ahinsaka becomes a notorious criminal who was asked by his tutor to make
a garland of chopped off human fingers. The Buddha was able to change
the altered psychological state of mind of this criminal (Angulimala)
and make him one of His disciples. In the Maha Kapina Jataka a monkey
saved a person who has fallen into a deep pit.
He was in hunger for several days. He wanted to kill and eat the
monkey who saved his life while it was sleeping on his lap as it was
dead tired after the rescue effort. A king (Maha Pratapa) orders the
chopping of his only son (Dharamapala) as the queen disregarded and
ignored him while she was lovingly fondling the son. He was jealous of
the son as the queen loved the son more than the king. This situation is
described in the Chulla Darmapala Jataka.
Cruelty portrayed
In some Russian and French novels the psychological aspects revealed
in some of these jataka stories are observed (Wickramasingha 1968). In
the Jaddantha Jataka the bodhisattva was born as a majestic tusker
elephant living on the top of a hill with his female companions. Its
great tusks emanate rainbow colours. Queen Subadra is jealous of this
tusker and dispatches a veddah archer hunter and ordered him to kill the
elephant. The hunter digs a pit and covers it with a plank and he stays
in the pit. When the elephant steps on this plank unknowingly, the
hunter shoots an arrow that pierces through the umbilicus of the
elephant and it is disabled. The hunter begins to cut the tusks with a
saw. The elephant comes to know from the hunter why he was doing it. The
elephant says to the hunter not to kill him and assists him to pluck off
its tusks. The tusks are removed and the hunter carries them to present
to queen Subadra. The glowing lusture of the tusks reminded the queen of
her previous husband and she immediately died of a heart attack.
In Chulla Palopana Jataka we come across prince Asanaga who right
from birth hates women. Whenever a woman touched him he would cry and
get distressed. His mother had to breast feed him while hiding herself
behind a screen only exposing her breasts through a hole in the curtain
for him to suck. As a child too he grew among menfolk. It was a problem
for the king as Asanaga has to take over the kingdom after him. But a
dancing girl took over this challenge and she started singing songs and
playing the violin (veena) quite unseen from a distance and gradually
came nearer and nearer. The prince became sensually stimulated by this
singing and veena tunes. He became friendly and engaged in sexual
activities with her. Thus his latent senses flowered and erupted like a
volcano. He became so wild and inflamed by the sudden burst of his
sexual hunger, he took the sword and began to chop and kill all the men
who came in front of him while he was running in the streets with the
sword in hand.
His notion was that none other than himself should enjoy sexual
pleasure with women.
The king had to banish prince Asanaga with the dancing girl to
Himalaya forest. He was happy to live in the forest with her. But one
day an ascetic dropped into the forest and this ascetic had sex with the
dancing girl while Asanaga was away on fruit gathering. But when he came
back the ascetic tried to run away by rising into the air through his
psychic power. But the fellow fell down. Asanaga wanted to kill the
fellow, but he thought that the ascetic has lost his psychic powers
because of his sexual involvement with his wife and pitied him. He took
the dancing girl to a road and asked her to go anywhere.
Asanaga returned to the forest and continued to practice asceticism.
In this jataka prince Asanaga was none other than then bodhisattva.
Jataka tales are some of the oldest folk tales and the Tale of the
Tunnel (Ummanga Jatakaya) which is one of the longest tales presents the
story of bodisatva being born as Mahusasda pundit who through his
strategic wisdom saved the life of his king Vedeha of Mithila. The story
of Kusa deals with the sacrifices of a powerful king who was very ugly
but very talented in artistic works as well as in warfare. King Kusa too
was an aspirant Buddha (bodhisattva) who won the heart of a very pretty
princess Pabawathie. A film termed Kusa-Paba illustrates the
relationship quite eloquently. The sheer range and variety of jataka
stories is impressive and in many the stream of consciousness seems to
be in operation in relation to a character's mind-memory, sense
perceptions, feelings, intuitions, thoughts in relation to the stream of
experience. In the Asthamantha Jataka the Bodhisattva was a learned
tutor (disapamok) who was looking after his very aged mother with
defective vision.
Family relations
A young student comes to him for tuition as a resident student. The
bodhisattva agreed to teach him free of charge on the condition that he
should take good care of his very aged blind mother. Further he
requested the student to inform him about the conversations between them
during the process of offering good care.
The student continued to bath, clean, feed and massage the very aged
woman. He often described her physical form. During the process her
subdued senses became stimulated and she suggested the student to enjoy
sex with her. But the student declined sating that he can't betray his
teacher.
The old lady suggested that he should kill the teacher, her own son.
But the student declined. Then she told him to lead her with an axe in
her hand at night to the place where the teacher used to sleep, so that
sh could chop him to death. The student has been informing all her
suggestions to the teacher. The teacher kept a wooden idol and covered
it with a cloth and kept it on his bed. During the night the aged mother
led by the student came there tottering and she landed the axe blade on
the neck of the wooden idol thinking that it was his son. But the sound
of the wood made her realize her folly.
There are some parallels between the jataka stories and the epics
Ramayanaya and Mahabharatha, Bible stories and Aesop's fables (Mahendra,
1996) Professor Edirivira Sarathchandra extensively used resources and
opportunities from jataka stories for his dramatic creations. Pabawathie
(1952) Maname (1956), Kadavalalu (1958), Mahasara (1967), Peamato Jayati
Soko (1969), Sinha Bahu (1979), Vessantara (1980) and Lomahanse (1985)
are some examples. Jataka scenes are found depicted in early scriptures,
cave and temple paintings. The Jataka tales also provided the themes for
mural painters in temples. The last of the jataka tales, Vessantara
Jatakaya was one of the most popular tales the attracted the Sinhala
painter. Words and phrases from these tales have entered the folk idiom
of the Sinhala language. At village funerals this tale is still read by
someone seated by the corpse (Disanayake, 2012). During the Vesak season
the Jataka scenes are seen displayed in Vesak pandols, Vesak lanterns
and Vesak greeting cards. The Jatakas are interesting as examples of
Buddhist literature, but they are particularly interesting as a portrait
of social life and customs of ancient India (Keown, 2003).
Book Review:
Valuable treatise on Buddhist marriage
Title: Baudhdha Vivahaya (Buddhist Marriage)
Author: Dr. M. Dhanawardana Guruge
Printed Vidyalankara Press –Kelaniya
Pages 90
|
The civil marriage allows
men and women to live
together as husbands and
wives under one roof and
raise families. The human
race goes on owing to civil
marriage duly recognized by
the civil law. Society welcomes
them as legally married
couples. We witness civil
weddings in which the
majority tie the knot in the
presence of a registrar, a
state officer. We refer to
them as civil weddings. |
We are familiar with civil and religious marriage. When we say
religious marriages our minds go to the weddings taken in Catholic and
mainstream Christian churches. Or the marriages taken place in
association with Hindu Kovils or mosques. They take place in the
presence of a religious head.
The civil marriage allows men and women to live together as husbands
and wives under one roof and raise families. The human race goes on
owing to civil marriage duly recognized by the civil law. Society
welcomes them as legally married couples. We witness civil weddings in
which the majority tie the knot in the presence of a registrar, a state
officer. We refer to them as civil weddings.
But it is very rare that we hear about or talk about Buddhist
marriages or weddings taking place within Buddhist temples. And no one
is bothered to think of a Buddhist marriage, a marriage performed in a
Buddhist temple before a Buddhist Monk.
‘Baudhdha Vivahaya’ (Buddhist Marriage) sounds new and very
unfamiliar concept that needs promotion.
A few years ago I remember reading about a marriage that had taken
place before a Buddhist monk in a Buddhist temple of fame. It was indeed
news to me and many who read about it. A very rare occurrence.
Marriage is the basis of the formation of a family from the beginning
of human history. It is a sacred event in human life. The wedlock gives
the necessary legal protection to, two persons to live as husband and
wife, to a man and a woman under one roof. House becomes a home with
their living together. The society accepts such unions and endorse in
public the union of two to begin the continuation of human race by
raising children, the future of the world.
How good it is if the civil marriage to which the majority enters has
the blessing of the Buddhist monks officiating such marriages in the
temples! Such a beginning is bound to change the lifestyle and there
would be unbroken connection between the families and the temples
throughout their lives. The society needs to think seriously to give a
sort of religious flavor to civil marriage by arranging such weddings to
take place centering the temple in the village or temple of the choice
of couple entering married life. Perusing the pages of ‘Baudhdha
Vivahaya’ authored by Dr. Danawardana Guruge with the able assistance
extended by Captain H M T H Vimukthi Bandara and Dhammika Madampage as
Associate Editors, I was happy that at last there is someone, conscious
of the need, who has put his weight behind to author a book on Buddhist
Marriage.
Undoubtedly it is a concept worth talking about in the face of
considerable number of the unsuccessful civil marriages and ever
increasing divorce cases in the present complex and sophisticated
society with technical advancement. The concept of marriage is full of
confusion and problems and it is being presented as a marketed product
which could be thrown after use. The fundamental reason for the failure
or the breakdown is that some of those entering marriages lack proper
understanding of the wedded life.
The book is timely and provides positive response to resolve issues
pertaining to the very concept of wedded life. The book ‘Baudhdha
Vivahaya’ a very small step in a giant project and provides necessary
ingredients to go into further research. The book points to the fact
that Buddhist marriage is very different, because it is influenced by
Buddhism. Marriages performed in line with the teaching of the Buddha
are called Buddhist marriage. The discourses of the Buddha point out
what things should be observed for a marriage to be successful. It is
strong, joyous and simple, economically good, and does not waste
colossal sums of money.
The book brings out the important role played by the age old marriage
customs. It shows what a successful life one could lead by observing the
Buddhist customs. Prathama and Duthiya Sanwasa, Uggaha and Samajjawee
Suthras provide necessary advice for a successful marriage.
The Prathama Loka Wijaya Suthra refers to wife as the highest and the
noble friend the husband has: ‘bharyacha paramo saba’. The book also
refers to the Singalowada suthraya, Mangala suthraya and Wasala suthraya,
which help to conduct and continue a successful Buddhist marriage.
The book points out the importance of couple entering married life
and getting the Maha Sanga to perform Buddhist rites of marriage. The
presence of the Maha Sanga creates the necessary grounds to begin good
relationship with the temple.
The book, while encouraging the performances of the Buddhist rites of
marriage in the presence of the Buddhist Monks, points out the need to
make proper arrangements within the temple to hold weddings. The book
speaks about the meaning of Buddhist marriage, rights and duties of both
man and woman as wife and husband in the wedded life towards each other,
the important points to be observed, rites, rituals and customs, and
procedure to follow in performing Buddhist wedding.
The book is not a masterpiece but a seed buried in the fertile land
to bear fruits in abundance with research. Students and scholars
attending universities, including the Bhikkhu University, should give
serious thought in proceeding in the path laid down by philanthropist
Danawardana Guruge.
This book is a lamp lit to enlighten the research mind.
- Wiruma |