Psychological aspects in motivation:

Motivational techniques past and present

Dr. K. Kuhathasan CEO - Cenlead

Abraham H. Maslow (1908-1970), an early humanist psychologist, developed one of the most widely recognised ‘needs theorists’ of human motivation. He is best known for his hierarchy of human needs theory, in which he proposed that humans have five needs: psychological, safety, social, self-esteem and self-actualization needs.

Maslow advocated a humanistic approach to management, which did not mean simply being maintaining good human relations, but, taking the basic innate nature and needs of human beings into account in management theories and practices.

Two-factor theory

In 1959, psychologist Frederick Herzberg proposed a theory of motivation that focuses on the job and on the environment where work is done. In this study, Herzberg asked engineers and accountants to relate what job - related issues made them feel good about their jobs and which ones made them feel bad.

He also asked them to describe the conditions that led to these positive or negative feelings. From this, Herzberg identified two categories of job factors, which he called maintenance factors and motivational factors.

Herzberg’s maintenance factors, which relate to the work setting include adequate wages, comfortable working conditions, fair company policies and job security. These factors do not necessarily motivate people to excel, but their absence may be a potential source of dissatisfaction, low morale and high turnover.

Motivational factors

Motivational factors relate to the content of the work and include achievement, recognition, the work itself, involvement, responsibility and advancement. They promote higher levels of performance. The absence of motivational factors may not result in dissatisfaction, but their presence is likely to motivate people.

Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor wrote a book entitled “The Human Side of Enterprise”, which has become an important philosophical base for the modern view of people at work. Drawing upon his experience as a management consultant,

McGregor formulated two sharply contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature. His Theory X assuptions were pessimistic and negative and according to McGregor’s interpretation, typical of how managers traditionally perceived people. McGregor formulated his Theory Y, a modern and positive set of assumptions about people. McGregor believed managers could accomplish more through others by viewing them as self-energized, committed, responsible and creative beings.

McGregor’s Theory Y challenges theorists and practising managers to adopt a developmental approach to people. Many modern managers endorse McGregor’s progressive Theory Y.

Modern assumptions about people at work

* Work is a natural activity, like play or rest.

* People are capable of self-direction and self-control if they are committed to objectives.

* People generally become committed to organizational objectives if they are rewarded for doing so.

* The typical employee can learn to accept and seek responsibility.

* The typical member of the general population has imagination, ingenuity and creativity.

Competitive business world

Today’s increasingly competitive business world means a highly motivated workforce is vital for any organization seeking to achieve good results. Therefore, learning how to motivate others has become an essential skill for managers. Motivating people show you how best to put motivational theories into practice to create and sustain a positive environment in the workplace.

* Today a manager is judged by results and results are normally achieved through people.

* A successful manager motivates people to produce the required results on time and within budget.

* You can apply several techniques of motivation to your people, staff and to your customers.

* As managers you may have to introduce several techniques the kind of motivation that is combined with high morale.

Therefore, managers have to

* Encourage, influence, inspire and stimulate staff.

* Provide them with adequate working conditions

* Make them feel that they want to work.

* Make them feel good about the work that they are doing.

Why motivation

In Sri Lanka, the following are some of the problems faced in the workplace.

* Employees appearing unhappy and complaining about unimportant matters.

* Employees refusing to cooperate and being obstructive.

* A high level of absence from work.

* Poor time-keeping.

* Staying away from the workplace as long as possible.

* Output falling below set quality and quantity standards.

* Jobs not being done on time

It is, therefore, important for the managers to motivate their people in the following areas.

* Narrow down internal conflicts.

* Develop better understanding.

* Develop job - satisfaction.

* Develop team work.

* Narrow down absenteeism.

* Commitment to perform well.

* Company loyalty.

How to motivate

Before motivating people, it is very necessary to find out the mentality of the people and motivate them accordingly.

People work for a variety of reasons.

* Most people need money, and work is a source of income.

* Most people enjoy the company of others. This ‘social’ side to work is very important for some people.

* Some people get bored if they are not being intellectually challenged. Work can provide an ideal challenge.

* Some people enjoy a particular form of work and do it because they enjoy it.

* Some people use work to compensate for other areas of their life. They may be unhappy and dominated at home. At work, they may be able to exercise power. They may also want to be independent.

* Some people need a framework for their lives - work can provide this.

* Some people need praise and need to have self-esteem. They need personal development. They find this at work.

Goal-setting theory

In view of these challenges, one of the most common motivational practices in Sri Lanka has been goal-setting theory, which recognizes the importance of goals in improving employee performance.

In other words, goals can act as motivators by focusing on people’s efforts on specific activities. Thus, people operating with goals outperform those without goals.

The particular advantages of goals include directing attention and action, mobilizing effort, creating patterns of persistent behaviour and developing strategies for goal attainment.

The biggest barrier to getting people to attain organizational goals is merging the individual’s and the organization’s needs.

People question “Will this benefit just management, or will it benefit me”” “Is this behaviour rewarded?” “Do I have the support, equipment, facilities, time, budget and staff to attain this goal?” For goals to motivate effectively, these issues must be addressed.

Researchers have found five key characteristic that improve people’s commitment to and acceptance of goals. They must be specific, measurable, achievable and result oriented.

Goal specificity means goals should be clear and well - defined. They should serve as a call to action, a preferred outcome, a deadline and a budget.

Participation in the process of setting goals gives people insights and control and deepens their commitment. Competition in goal attainment can involve pitting one individual against another (as in individual sales goals) or pitting one group against another (as in cost - efficiency for one team or division versus another). Competition, however can have negative side effects if employees engage in unethical behaviour or behaviour that could harm the organization in the long run.

Five golden rules for goal setting and reinforcement through praise have been defined as:

* Set goals that are achievable. Many small goals work better than one large one.

* Be specific when you praise the achievement of a goal. State exactly what is being praised.

* Give immediate praise when the goal is achieved - not later.

* Usually praise from a superior is more motivating than a financial bonus.

* Be a bit unpredictable - unexpected praise motivates more than expected praise!

Motivation through appraisal

In most organizations there are two types of appraisal - formal and informal. Formal appraisals take place on a regular basis usually annually. Informal appraisals can take place at any time that the manager wishes.

Normally an appraisal is a time when manager and employee identify gaps in performance, find ways of improvement and plan the way forward.

The annual appraisal often includes a salary review. In some firms the employee also appraises the manager! This usually works very well.

A good performance appraisal leaves both parties feeling they have gained something. A bad performance appraisal can demotivate completely.

Some tips for appraisals:

* Always announce an appraisal in advance to allow for preparation.

* Agree a specific time, place and specific topics for discussion.

* Ensure thorough preparation by both side. Preparation by the employee is as important as preparation by the manager.

* Employees may wish to bring up items for discussion to add to the agenda. This should be encouraged.

* Find a suitable place for the appraisal where you will be undisturbed.

* In the meeting cover

- an assessment of the employee’s achievement of previous goals;

- praise for goal achievement;

- identification of needs for improvement through training and coaching.

- establishment of new agreed goals and methods for achieving them.

* Ensure that unsatisfactory performance is identified in a non-threatening way and a solution agreed.

Motivation and job design

The various theories on motivation have helped managers to develop strategies for motivating people to achieve organizational objectives and for boosting morale within their organizations.

Many of these techniques involve job design, which applies to motivational theories to the structuring of jobs to increase productivity and morale.

Herzberg identified the job itself as a motivational factor. Managers have several strategies that they can use to design jobs and thereby promote motivation.

Among these strategies are job design techniques such as job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment.