More tips on investigative journalism :

Facts first, then fit the jigsaw

Gaston de Rosayro

The Washington Post reporter, Carl Bernstein

The Washington Post reporter, Bob Woodward

Former US President, Richard Nixon

Because investigative reporting means digging up hidden facts, your job will not be as easy as reporting court or a public meeting. People will try to hide things from you. You must gather as many relevant facts as you can, from as many people as possible. Your facts must be accurate, so always check them.

And do not expect dramatic results. Real life journalism is seldom like the stories you see in films. Most investigations need many hours of work gathering lots and lots of small details.

You and your editor must realise this. If you are not given enough time, you may not be able to do any successful investigative reporting.

Always be on the lookout for possible stories. Sometimes people will come to you with tip-offs, but often you must discover the stories yourself.

Story ideas can come from what you read or overhear or even a sudden thought while you are brushing your teeth. Good investigative reporters do not let any possible story clues escape. They write them down because they might come in useful later.

Listen to casual conversations and rumour, on the bus, in the street or in a club.

Careless words give the first clues to something wrong, but never write a story based only on talk you have overheard or on rumour.

As you gather the facts, fit them together to make sure that they make sense. Investigative reporting is often like doing a jigsaw. At the beginning you have a jumble of pieces.

Only slowly will they emerge as a picture. Unlike a jigsaw puzzle, you will not have all the pieces at the beginning. You have to recognise which pieces are missing then go and find them.

Remember you are trying to find information which some people want to keep secret. They will not help you in your investigation, so you cannot check your facts with them. They will probably oppose you and look for mistakes in everything you write or broadcast.

If you make a mistake, they will probably take you to court. You must always check your facts. Take a tip from the most famous example of investigative reporting, the so-called ‘Watergate Affair’. The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein investigated a crime which eventually led to the downfall of US President Richard Nixon.

Gathering facts from people

They knew their enemies would be waiting for them to make a mistake, so they made it a rule that they would never use any fact unless it was confirmed by two sources. This is a good rule to try to follow.

However, remember that many people you might interview about corruption could be corrupt themselves. Criminals lie, so be suspicious of what you are told and check their words with someone else, preferably someone you trust.

Writing down story clues

In addition to gathering facts, you should also gather evidence to support those facts. This is especially important in case you are taken to court for defamation as a result of your investigation. Courts will only accept facts which can be proved.

If someone tells you something on the record, you can show the court your notes, but it would also be useful to get a signed statutory declaration from them.

This is a kind of legal statement given under oath. Original documents will usually be accepted as evidence, but photocopies may not, unless they are supported by evidence from the owner of the original, who may not choose to help you.

When investigating corruption or abuse, you will meet people who will only give you information if you promise never to reveal their identity. This is very common in criminal matters, where people are scared of pay-back.

You can agree to these conditions but remember, sometime in the future a judge examining the same matter in court may order you to reveal the name of such a confidential source of information. You will be breaking the law if you refuse to name your source, and could go to jail for contempt.

If you promise to protect a confidential source, you must do so until the source himself or herself releases you from that promise. So if you are not prepared to go to jail to protect a source, do not promise in the first place. People may threaten you to try to stop your work. This could be a threat of physical harm or a threat by a company to stop advertising with your newspaper or station.

It could even by a vague threat to "do something" to you. Most threats are never carried out. The people making them realise that harming you will only make their situation worse.

But all threats should be reported immediately to your editor or to your organisation's lawyer. This will share the burden of worry with someone objective.

It will also act as extra protection if the person making the threat knows that it is public knowledge. If you have a witness to the threat, you might be able to include it in your eventual story, after getting legal advice. Investigative journalism always leads to some unpleasant conflict. If you cannot cope with conflict, stay out of investigative journalism.

Journalists have no special rights in law, even when investigating corruption. Unlike the police, journalists cannot listen in to other people's telephone calls or open their letters. Journalists cannot enter premises against a person's wish.

You must work within the law, but more than that, you should not use any unethical methods of getting information.

For example, you should not pretend to be someone to whom people feel obliged to give information, such as a police officer or a government official.

However, there are situations where you do not have to tell people that you are a journalist when gathering information. We will discuss those points in another chapter.

If you have any doubts about legal matters, consult your editor or your organisation's lawyer.

To summarise: Investigative journalism is needed to uncover important stories which people want to hide. Investigative journalists need all the skills of general reporting, but especially:

* An alert mind to recognise story ideas and important facts which people are trying to hide

* An ordered mind to make notes, file information and fit lots of facts together

* Patience to keep digging for information

* Good contacts throughout society

* Courage to withstand threats from people you are investigating

As well as accumulating information, you must also gather supporting evidence in case your story is challenged. You must protect confidential sources of information

Always consult a lawyer if you have any worries about the legality of what you are doing or writing.

Double-check everything you do, from the information you gather to the way you write your final story. Work within the law.