Foreign references to ancient and medieval Sri Lanka

KAMALIKA PIERIS

Foreign writings on Sri Lanka are an important source for information on ancient Sri Lanka. There are many Greek and Roman references to Sri Lanka. These are largely based on the Greek experiences in the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka was mentioned by Onescritus (4 Century BC) and Megasthenes (3 Century BC,) Onescritus was a pilot attached to the navy of Alexander the Great. Megasthenes was an ambassador attached to the Maurya court.

Egyptian traveller

Eratosthenes (276-196BC) Strabo (64BC - 21 AD) Pliny the elder (23-79AD) as well as Artemidorus, Hipparchus, Paladin (5th Century) and Procopius (6th Century) have referred to Sri Lanka.

The fullest accounts are in Ptolemy’s Geographia, the ‘Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’ (author unknown) and the 6th Century work Topographica Christiania by the Egyptian traveller Cosmos Indicopleustes.

There are a large number of Chinese writings which provide valuable data on Sri Lanka.

The Mahavamsa is silent on China. There are references to Sri Lanka in the official records maintained by the Chinese emperors.

There are over ten of these records. The documents include the ‘Chin-shu’ which is the history of the Ching dynasty compiled in 644 AD, the ‘Liang-shu’, the history of the Liang dynasty compiled in 629AD, the ‘Wei-shu’, the history of the Weo dynasty compiled in 554.AD, and the ‘Sung-shu’, the history of the Lui-Sung dynasty compiled in 488 AD.

There are also at least nine other historical works which mention Sri Lanka, such as the ‘Tung Ten’ and ‘Tsa-chi’. Li Chao speaks of visits paid every year by Sinhala ships to Vietnam and China. So does Kientchen writing in the Tang period. Chau Ju Kua, a Chinese inspector of foreign trade gives an account of trade in the South Asian region including Sri Lanka.

The writings of Ma Huan and Fei Hsin refer to the visits by Cheng Ho. Several travel writings such as the’ Itinerary of Ke Nee’, (10 Century) the ‘Description of Western countries’ (14 Century) and the account by Wang Tu-Yuan (15 Century) speak of Sri Lanka.

Chinese accounts which are based on the Buddhist links between China and Sri Lanka also provide useful information. Chinese accounts of the lives of Gunavarman, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra mention their visits to Sri Lanka. There is also a work titled ‘Biography of eminent Bhikkus’ (Kuo sang Chuan) dated 519AD.

The Buddhist pilgrims Huang Tsang and I Tsing (7 Century) make useful observations about Sri Lanka, though they did not come here. The Chinese monk Fa Hsien came to Sri Lanka, probably during the reign of Mahanama.

He stayed here for about two years. In the account of his travels he gives valuable information not only about the state of the religion at the time but also about the conditions of the country in general and of Anuradhapura in particular.

By the 8th Century the European trade with Asia came into the hands of the Muslim traders, referred to as Arabs.

Sri Lanka was an important stopping place and trading settlement for these Arab traders. Their travel writings often speak of Sri Lanka. Ibn Wahab writing in the 9th Century commented on the local gem industry and Tabari mentioned Sri Pada.

In the 10th Century, Masudi who visited Asia wrote on Sri Lanka. Istakhri, Ibn Hawqual and Maqdisi, speak of Sri Lanka as the final destination of Muslim navigators. Istakhri and Ibn Shahriyar record that the Muslim traders were interested in several Sri Lankan products.

Reference to cinnamon

The earliest foreign reference to Sri Lanka’s cinnamon is in a text by Ibn Shahriyar.

The writings of Abu Zayd, dated to 950 AD contain an account by the sea captain Sulaiman of Siraf of his visit to Sri Lanka in 850 AD. He mentions a pilgrimage to Adam’s peak.

Al Idrisi, a geographer at the Court of Roger II of Sicily (1101-54) used maps and charts of the Indian Ocean prepared by Arab sailors as well as the Ptolemy map and presented a picture of Sri Lanka. Idrisi was a contemporary of Parakrama bahu I.

He said the Sinhala king imported wine form Iraq to be resold in the country. He described Adam’s Peak and said that on and around this mountain, all kind of rubies and various types of precious stones are found.

The Persian geographer Kazwini who lived in the 13th Century mentions the gold work, silver work and pearls of Sri Lanka.

Wassaf described Sri Lanka in glowing terms. He seemed to suggest that the advantage of trade between Sri Lanka and the Muslims were weighted in favour of Sri Lanka. Ibn Sina and Al Beruni spoke of Sri Lanka’s quartz.

Ibn Batuta visited Sri Lanka sometime in the period 1344-1348. Ibn Batuta’s writings are regarded as accurate and comprehensive.

He has provided information on the Muslim settlements in the Southern ports of Sri Lanka. He looked at the gem industry and noted that the more valuable stones were reserved for the king while the rest belonged to those who found them. He met Ariya Chakravarti at Puttalam, chatted to him in Persian and went on a pilgrimage to Adams Peak. He spoke of Muslim settlements along this route as well.

Gem industry

Europeans who travelled to Asia wrote of Sri Lanka. Marco Polo was in Sri Lanka in 1292 AD.

He said that Sri Lanka produced superb rubies, sapphires, topazes, amethysts, garnets and many other precious stones.

He said the king possesses the finest ruby that exists in this world. He said the Muslims in the ports were actively and busily engaged in trade.

He said that there were hired Muslim soldiers in the Sinhala army. Giovanni de Marignolli, a Franciscan monk who was going to Madras, got caught in a storm and came to Sri Lanka in 1349. In his writings Marignolli refers to a Kwajah Jahan at Beruwela.

The travel writings of Nicolo di Conti of Venice, Ludovici Varthema of Bologna and Duarte Barbosa from Portugal as well as Friar Odoric, Friar Jordanus contain references to Sri Lanka.