Poisoning the planet
Changing our purchasing habits to "organic" or
"fair trade" is not enough. We must actively seek solidarity with those
small farmers who are refusing to co-operate with the agribusiness
paradigm.
Miguel A. Altieri
In 2007, genetically modified (GM) crops were grown on 114.3 million
hectares worldwide. Of the twenty-three countries which grow GM crops,
Argentina and Brazil are the major players in South America, though the
cultivation of transgenic crops is also expanding in Bolivia and
Paraguay.
The biotech industry claims that GM crops have met the expectations
of millions of farmers in developing countries, delivering benefits to
consumers and society through more affordable food that requires less
pesticides to grow and hence leads to more sustainable farming.
Impacts
What corporations fail to mention is that Roundup Ready (RR) soybean
accounts for 70 percent of all GM crops and is tolerant to Monsanto's
Roundup herbicide, glyphosate. Much of the soybean crop is grown by
large-scale farmers for biodiesel and for export as animal feed to China
and Europe. The impacts of soybean expansion in South America go beyond
the typical effects of monocultures heavily sprayed with herbicides, but
include deforestation, soil fertility mining, food insecurity and the
expulsion of small farmers, thus exacerbating rural conflicts.
The expansion of soybean farming is accompanied by massive
transportation infrastructure projects that lead to the destruction of
natural habitats over wide areas, well beyond the deforestation directly
caused by soybean cultivation. In Brazil, soybean profits justified the
improvement or construction of industrial waterways, railway lines and
an extensive network of roads. These in turn have attracted logging,
mining, ranching and other practices with severe impacts on
biodiversity. The Rosario region on the Parana River in Argentina has
become the largest soya agro-industrial processing area in the world,
with all the environmental impacts that such infrastructure entails.
Soybean occupies the largest area of any crop in Brazil (14.5 million
hectares). In Argentina about 16 million hectares are devoted to
soybean, and the total production is more than 40 million tonnes. In
Paraguay soybeans occupy more than 25percent of all agricultural land.
Soya cultivation has already resulted in the deforestation of 21 million
hectares of forests in Brazil, 14 million hectares in Argentina, two
million hectares in Paraguay and 600,000 hectares in Bolivia. In
response to global market pressure for biofuels, Brazil alone will
likely clear an additional 60 million hectares of land in the near
future to grow more soybean for biodiesel, and sugar cane for ethanol.
Disparities
Soybean expansion also leads to extreme land and income disparity. In
Brazil, soybean cultivation displaces eleven agricultural workers for
every one who finds employment in the sector. Yearly, millions of people
are displaced by soybean production, and these landless people move to
the Amazon and other regions, where they clear pristine forests. In
Argentina the situation is quite dramatic, as 60,000 farms went out of
business while the area of GM soybean almost tripled. In one decade, the
area of soybean cultivation increased by 126 percent at the expense of
dairy, maize, wheat and fruit production. For the country, this means
more imports of basic foods, creating a loss of food sovereignty, and
for poor small farmers and consumers, only increased food prices and
more hunger.
Resistance to Roundup
As the cultivation of soybean rapidly expands, so does glyphosate
use. In southern Brazil, for every kilo reduction of non-glyphosate
herbicide during the period of expansion of GM soybean cultivation, the
use of glyphosate increased by 7.5 kilos. In Argentina, Roundup
applications reached the equivalent of an estimated 160 million litres
in the 2004 growing season, and herbicide usage is expected to increase
as weeds start developing resistance to Roundup.
A recent study by Brazilian researchers found thirteen weed species
that have developed resistance to glyphosate. In Argentina, resistant
biotypes of Johnson grass, Ipomoea species and other weeds are also
emerging, creating a typical treadmill in which glyphosate generates
weeds that are harder to control, in turn requiring increased amounts of
other herbicides such as 2,4-D. Instead of reducing the need for
agrochemicals as proponents once claimed, GM technology has increased
their use.
Negative effects
Biotech companies claim that herbicides should not pose negative
effects on humans or the environment. In practice, however, the
large-scale planting of GM crops encourages aerial application of
herbicides and only one percent of what is sprayed reaches the crop -
the rest ends up in the soil and water. The agribusiness companies
contend that glyphosate degrades rapidly in the soil, does not
accumulate in ground water, has no effects on non-target organisms, and
leaves no residue in foods and water or soil, yet glyphosate has been
reported to be toxic to some non-target species in the soil including
beneficial predators such as spiders, mites, carabid and coccinellid
beetles, detritivores such as earthworms, and mycorrhizae and other
microfauna, as well as to aquatic organisms including microbial
communities, frogs and fish.
Research has shown that glyphosate seems to act in a similar fashion
to antibiotics, altering soil biology in as yet unknown ways and causing
effects such as reduction of the ability of soybeans, clover and other
legumes to fix nitrogen, and the rendering of bean plants more
vulnerable to disease. During the first year of glyphosate application
on RR soya, a severe sudden death syndrome epidemic occurred (an
infection by the fungus Fusarium solani) in several RR cultivars,
resulting in reduction of the growth of beneficial soil-dwelling
mycorrhizal fungi, and other changes to the microbial community.
All these effects can alter nutrient cycling and other important
processes in the soil, thus reducing plant growth and health. In a study
using outdoor tanks, researchers found that even when applied at
concentrations that are just a third of the maximum recommended
concentrations, glyphosate killed 98 percent of all tadpoles within
three weeks and 79 percent of all frogs within one day.
Impact on eco-system
Researchers have also shown that the reduction of weed biomass and
flowering and seeding parts under herbicide-resistant crop management
causes changes in insect availability with knock-on effects resulting in
abundance reduction of several beetles, butterflies and bees. Counts of
predacious carabid beetles that feed on weed seeds were smaller in
transgenic crop fields. The number of invertebrates that are food for
mammals, birds and other invertebrates were also found to be generally
lower in herbicide-resistant crop fields. The absence of flowering weeds
in transgenic fields can have serious consequences for pollinators but
also for pests' natural enemies, which require pollen and nectar for
survival; this in turn can lead to enhanced insect pest problems. Third
World Network Features
(The writer is a lecturer in agroecology at the University of
California, USA.)
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