Philosopher to the end

February 15, 399 BC ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was sentenced to death for what was seen as political crimes against Athens.

Peloponnesian War. He is also considered the greatest and most influential Western philosopher in history

On this fateful day philosopher Socrates stood before a jury of 500 of his fellow Athenians accused of “refusing to recognize the gods recognized by the state” and of “corrupting the youth,” for which his penalty would be death.

Socrates was 70 years old and familiar to most Athenians. His anti-democratic views had turned many in the city against him. Two of his students, Alcibiades and Critias, had twice briefly overthrown the democratic government of the city, instituting a reign of terror in which thousands of citizens were deprived of their property and either banished from the city or executed.

After hearing the arguments of both Socrates and his accusers, the jury was asked to vote on his guilt. Under Athenian law the jurors did not deliberate the point. Instead, each juror registered his judgment by placing a small disk into an urn marked either ‘guilty’ or ‘not guilty.’ Socrates was found guilty by a vote of 280 to 220.

The jurors were next asked to determine Socrates’ penalty. His accusers argued for the death penalty. Socrates was given the opportunity to suggest his own punishment and could probably have avoided death by recommending exile.

Instead, the philosopher initially offered the sarcastic recommendation that he be rewarded for his actions. When pressed for a realistic punishment, he proposed that he be fined a modest sum of money. Faced with the two choices, the jury selected death for Socrates.

The philosopher was taken to jail where his sentence was carried out. Athenian law prescribed death by drinking a cup of poison hemlock. Socrates would be his own executioner.

Plato was Socrates’ most famous student. Although he was not present at his mentor’s death, he knew those who were there. Plato described the scene through the narrative voice of the fictional character Phaedo.

“When Crito heard, he signalled to the slave who was standing by. The boy went out, and returned after a few moments with the man who was to administer the poison which he brought ready mixed in a cup. When Socrates saw him, he said, ‘Now, good sir, you understand these things. What must I do?’

‘Just drink it and walk around until your legs begin to feel heavy, then lie down. It will soon act.’ With that he offered Socrates the cup.

The latter took it quite cheerfully without a tremor, with no change of colour or expression. He just gave the man his stolid look, and asked, ‘How say you, is it permissible to pledge this drink to anyone? May I?’

The answer came, ‘We allow reasonable time in which to drink it.’

‘I understand’, he said, ‘we can and must pray to the gods that our sojourn on earth will continue happy beyond the grave. This is my prayer, and may it come to pass.’ With these words, he stoically drank the potion, quite readily and cheerfully.

Up till this moment most of us were able with some decency to hold back our tears, but when we saw him drinking the poison to the last drop, we could restrain ourselves no longer. In spite of myself, the tears came in floods, so that I covered my face and wept - not for him, but at my own misfortune at losing such a man as my friend. Crito, even before me, rose and went out when he could check his tears no longer.

Apollodorus was already steadily weeping, and by drying his eyes, crying again and sobbing, he affected everyone present except for Socrates himself.

He said, ‘You are strange fellows; what is wrong with you? I sent the women away for this very purpose, to stop their creating such a scene. I have heard that one should die in silence. So please be quiet and keep control of yourselves.’ These words made us ashamed, and we stopped crying.

Socrates walked around until he said that his legs were becoming heavy, when he lay on his back, as the attendant instructed. This fellow felt him, and then a moment later examined his feet and legs again.

Squeezing a foot hard, he asked him if he felt anything. Socrates said that he did not. He did the same to his calves and, going higher, showed us that he was becoming cold and stiff. Then he felt him a last time and said that when the poison reached the heart he would be gone.

As the chill sensation got to his waist, Socrates uncovered his head (he had put something over it) and said his last words: ‘Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Do pay it. Don’t forget.’

‘Of course’, said Crito. ‘Do you want to say anything else?’

‘There was no reply to this question, but after a while he gave a slight stir, and the attendant uncovered him and examined his eyes. Then Crito saw that he was dead, he closed his mouth and eyelids.

This was the end of our friend, the best, wisest and most upright man of any that I have ever known”

- ‘The Suicide of Socrates, 399 BC,’ EyeWitness to History

Dracula 1931:

Vampire legacy

Dilmika TENNAKOON

Dracula was first published as a book by Bram Stoker in Great Britten in 1897. The story was based on myths and legends about vampires that existed from ancient times. The book was adapted into a film in February 15, 1931 by Tod Browning. Vampire Dracula captured the public interest due to the chilling portrayal of the character in the horror film version.

The character of Dracula has become very popular after the film. Many people who were exposed to the famous vampire through film did not know it was based on a novel. Bela Lugosi was the protagonist who portrayed Dracula. He helped to keep the story alive and influenced the imagination of the people.

Origin

Eastern-European old folkloric belief in vampires which emerged in late 18th and early 19th Century was used to portray Dracula. According to critics Dracula was based on a historical figure. Fifteenth Century Romanian ruler ‘Vlad’ was known for his inhuman brutality. He had the taste of impaling people alive on wooden spikes and watching them die in slow agony.

Universal monster movies stepped in to a new era with the release of Dracula in 1931. Starting from 1931 Dracula films have added more mystery to the legend Dracula. Only after this film moved to America the icon Dracula became popular among the audience of the world. It has also become a global production though it is known as a popular American cultural product.

Dracula is a complex model, coming from both Western European Gothic tradition and East-European vampire folklore. It also had a profound cultural influence.

Some critics say that the film Dracula was not overshadowed by Stoker’s novel. According to them it was directly descended from a stage production.

First film

However Tod Browning’s Dracula, was the first authorized motion picture which was adapted by Bram Stoker’s novel. But there were other motion pictures of Dracula which were created more successfully and artistically than Browning’s film.

The first film based on the Dracula story was Nosferatu (1922). Ten years before the release of Browning’s Dracula, F M Murnau, a German film maker brought the story to the screen in the silent classic Nosferatu. But it was sued for copyright infringement and the movie was withdrawn.

However, up to now Nosferatu stands as the most artistic, strange and frightening adaptation of Dracula.

Nosferatu vividly illustrated the gothic, scary, chilling atmosphere which has illustrated in the novel. But Browning’s 1931 edition doesn’t match the earlier movie.

Protagonist

However the protagonist Bela Lugosi played a magnificent role as Dracula (1931). Up to now no one can imitate Lugosi because of his unique thick Hungarian accent.

Today when people think of Dracula they think of Lugosi. Even though many actors have played the role since, no one could challange Lugosi. After Lugosi’s horror movie, more than 160 films have featured Dracula in a major role.

Comparing with Nosferatu and Borwning’s films, the Spanish 1931 Dracula is superior in almost every way, except foe the missing image of Bela Lugosi. Public got a proper idea of what a vampire is, due to Lugosi’s lascivious eyes and elegant accent.

The modern mythology of vampirism which people strongly believe in was highly influenced by these films.

However Dracula remains a most thrilling horror movie to this day, even after 70 years of its first release. The myth of Dracula has become a worldwide phenomenon. \\\\