Gandhara artist’s lasting contribution to Greco-Buddhist art

K. K. Khullar

Gandhara: Popularly known as Greco-Buddhist art, the Gandhara School of art is distinct from the aniconic tradition of early Indian sculpture and the anthropomorphic tradition of Greco-Roman art.

The Gandhara artist, it is said, had the hand of a Greek but the head and heart of an Indian. Although the process of production and the manner of his using the material was Hellenistic, the basic urge, imagery and iconography remained Indian.

The school is represented in sculptures, stucco, clay as well as in mural paintings. Originally, the Gandhara sculptures were painted and covered with thin layers of gold.

The Gandhara School of art flourished in the north-west of undivided India and the eastern Afghanistan for nearly eight hundred years, between the first century B.C. and the 7th century A.D. Ruled by the Persian dynasty (Iran) in the 6th to 5th century B.C., Gandhara absorbed the Indian and Mediterranean influences in art and culture.

It is here that the fusion of civilisations took place; it is here that the rhythm of civilisations was maintained. A typical characteristic of Indian culture is its capacity of absorption, assimilation and synthesis. It is surprising how invader after invader came to India, only to become its part.

Gandhara was conquered by Alexander of Macedonia in the 4th century B.C. During the reign of Ashoka, it was a part of the Mauryan empire and one of the biggest centres of Buddhism.

It is said that Buddhist missionaries used to be welcomed there with the beat of drums. Again it was a part of Kushan empire under Kanishka in the first century A.D when Gandhara and Mathura Schools of art moved towards excellence unmatched by any other art movement or school.

The Kushans fostered a composite culture so exquisitely exemplified by the artistic creations of the Gandhara school of art, as also on the Gandhara coins where all deities - Indian, Iranian, Buddhist, Greco-Roman, Bectrian, Parthian were invoked, The Kanishka statue found at Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan embodies the best of Kushan style in Gandhara iconography.

The Kushan period marks an important epoch in Indian history because India came into close contact with the outside world during their rule. It also marks the beginning of the golden age of Gandhara art.

Kushans had intimate contact with Rome and Greece. In their interpretation of the Buddhist legends, the Gandhara artists leaned, heavily on classical Roman art with plentiful of Greek mythology such as angels with garlands, Tritons with the fish tails and horse’s forefoot, Centaurs with human heads, arms and the body, spiral and flowing lines, scrolls and stuccos.

The result it that we have Buddha with curly hair, muscles and moustaches. Gauthama is made to look like the youthful Apollo, the Greek sun-god symbolising beauty and strength dressed in loose attire.

A large number of clay Buddhas have been excavated in eastern and central Afghanistan which was under the influence of Mahayana Buddhism after the historic Buddhist split at Parishipura (modern Peshawar in Pakistan) in the days of Kanishka the Great.

The Gandhara School of Art bears testimony to the fact that the political boundaries between India and Afghanistan simple did not exist under the Mauryas, Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the Kushans, the Parthians and even the Kughals.

The last wish of the dying Mughal Emperor Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, was that he should be buried in Afghanistan. And he lies buried in a Kabul garden.

In Afghanistan, excavations at Bamiyan, Begram, Hadda, Kandhar and Kunduz have brought to light several Buddhist settlements. In the modern village of Hadda, 531 stupas and 3,000 statues of Buddha and Boddhisatvas have been found in clay and stucco.

Hadda’s ancient name is “Nagarahara” which was visited both by Fahien, who visited the settlement around 400 AD, and by Hieun Tsang who camped there in 630 AD. Both these pilgrims came from China via Afghanistan to visit the land of Sakyamuni.

Hieun Tsang stayed here for 18 years, first as a student, then as a teacher at Nalanda University where students from all parts of the world, including Afghanistan and Iran, came for learning and enlightenment.

Art education formed part of Nalanda curriculum and admission in art school there was very difficult. It is said admission-seekers waited for years at the gates of Nalanda to pass the entrance test.

In the early Buddhist art we have evidence that the Buddha was represented by various symbols such as Bodhi Tree with ‘Vajrasana’ beneath it, footprints of Sakyamuni and above all, the viharas and the stupas. In Buddhist lore, Vihara signifies something which is associated with the life of the Buddha while Stupa symbolises an event connected with his death.

The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati testify to this. So do the Viharas of Nalanda, Rajgriha and Vikramsila. Many historians believe that the Hellenic sculptors of Gandhara were the earliest image-makers of Buddha while others give this credit to the iconographists of Mathura school which flourished in the second century B.C. to the 12th century AD.

At Mathura, the Buddha image was cast in the red-sandstone obtained from Sikri quarries.

The Mathura school excelled in Yaksha (male spirit) closely resembling the collosal standing figure of Buddha of the Gandhara school.

Both the schools also produced seated Buddhas with broad shouldered, shaven head, smiling face and right arm in a gesture of ‘Abhaya Mudra’. While in Gandhara, Buddha is seated on a lotus throne, throne, in Mathura the Master rests on a lion throne.

Again while the Gandhara Buddha is draped in the central Asian fashion, the Mathura figures wear Indian dresses. The female figurines of Mathura (Yakshis) are sensuous and eye catching.

Thus we find that the journey between an aniconic tradition of the early Indian art and the gradual appearance of cult icons is an important and interesting chapter in Indo-Greek iconography. Perhaps these two schools flourished simultaneously and evolved their own image of Buddha in which both excelled and influenced each other.

When Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim, saw the two gigantic Buddhas at Bamiyan he became ecstatic; he had never before seen such a tall Buddha anywhere. Similarly, Hieun Tsang (630 AD) said that Bamiyan Valley is not only famous for its two collosal Buddhas measuring 175 ft and 120 ft respectively, but also for its hundreds of cave-shrines and monasteries.

For two thousand years these Buddha sculptures kept the world spell-bound. Sadly, in March, 2001, they were blown up by the Taliban on the ground that they were pagan. A Swiss team is planning to reconstruct one of the two Buddhas as a symbol of hope.

Alberuni, who accompanied the hordes of Mahmud of Ghzni several times during time early 11th century, was wonder-struck to see the Buddha statues not only at Bamiyan but also at Taxilla, Peshawar, Multan and Mathura.

Writing about the super-excellence of Indian sculptors in his famous book ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’, he says: “They have attained a very high degree of art in this; so much so that when our people (Muslims) see them, they marvel at them and are unable to describe them - much less construct anything like them”.

This is high praise and coming as it does from a scholar-extraordinary like Alberuni, speaks volumes of the Indian genius which conceived and sculpted such Buddhas.

In a larger analysis of Indo-Greek and Indo-Afghan art, it can be safely said the Gandhara artist made a lasting contribution to the Greco-Buddhist art by striking a balance between the real and the ideal, the sensuous and the sacred, between evolution and ethics, between a smiling and a suffering Buddha, between a standing and a seated Bodhisatva.

India Perspective

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The advocacy of racial and religious pluralism in Buddhism

Rohan L. Jayetilleke

racial and religious pluralism: Indian society 2550 years ago could be described as the oldest version of racism. The Khattiyas were born to rule, Brahamans a class exclusively mustering religious and learning influences, the Vessa, trade and commerce and the menial labour class of the other three higher classes.

As far as religions are concerned there were four faiths, namely, scriptural authoritarnism (veda pramanayam), belief in a God-creator (Katruvada) soul - thery (Atmavada) and Holy Dip (snane - dharmeccha). Thus the Buddha had to ignore these class and faith divides and treat all the people alike.

People of various clans, tribes and religious persuasions obtained ordination under the Buddha. The Buddha stated that waters of all rivers when joining the sea are of one taste, the saline taste and those who obtained under him, similarly had no divides and were called “Sakya-Putra’ Sakya being Buddha’s clan and they all became sons of the Sakyas.

The Buddha loved the people as a whole as is evidenced by his exhortation to the first sixty disciples at Saranath, Varanasi, “Go now and wander for the welfare and happiness of many, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, welfare and happiness if gods and men” bahujana sukhaya bahujsna hitaya (Vinaya Mahavagga 1: 7 - 20). He equated men with gods.

Addressing the Liccavi rulers of Vajjian confederacy of Vaishali, as regards righteous governance, the Buddha advised them, “Assemble in concord, rise in concord, and do your duty as Vajjians in concord, avoid enacting the unenacted or abolishing existing enactments and proceed in accordance with the ancient Vajjian laws as enact, honour, respect, revere and venerate Vajjian elders (recluses) and think they should be heeded, live without raping and abducting the women and girls of your clans, honour, respect, revere and venerate the Vajjian shrines both in town and country oblations, hitherto give and not made to lapse, provide lawful protection, defence and guarding among the Vajjians for Arhants so that Arhants who have not come to the realm may come and Arhants who have come may live happily” (saptaiparhanidhamma - seven non-degenerative norms of governance (Digha Nikaya 16).

The Vajjians were followers of Jaina Mahavira. Herein Arhant term was first used by the Jains to call their recluses who had advanced in spirituality.

Thus it would be seen the Buddha totally advocated religious and racial pluralism as a non-degenerative norm of life. Once when at Vaishali, when General Siha, the Commander-in-Chief of the Liccavis’ army, approached the Buddha and having listened to him, expressed his desire to become lay followers of the Buddha.

The Buddha told him quite frankly that since he was not an ordinary man and a pillar of a Jaina Sect, he should consider very deeply before he changed his teacher.

In the Kalama sutta, addressed to the Kalamas, the Buddha says, “Well, Kalamas, it is only proper to question and inquire where such is called for. Now Kalamas, do not accept a thing merely by hearsay or because it has been handed down by tradition, or because it is believed to be so from generation to generation or merely because it has been sanctioned by the scriptures, or by specious, reasoning, or by mere logical deduction, or by rigid adherence to a school of thought, or because of ideological and dogmatic preference, or because it suits you, or again just out of respect for a religious teacher.

But, Kalamas, when you know for yourselves that these things are unwholesome, blameworthy. Censured by the wise, and when acted upon or undertaken conduce to harm and suffering, then should you reject them. “This freedom of expression and thought was introduced to mankind for the first time by the Buddha 2550 years ago.

When the Buddha was just on the eve of Mahaparinibbana at Kusinara, aged 80, the wanderer Subhadda (not the last disciple of the Buddha) met the Buddha and inquired of him, “Master Gotama, there are these monks and brahmanas, each with his community, with his groups, leading a group, each renowned and famous philosopher reckoned by many as a saint (Arhant). I mean Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kachayana, Sanjay Bellattiputta and Nigantha Nathaputta.

Have they all had direct knowledge as they claim, or have none of them had direct knowledge, or have some of them have had direct knowledge and some not?” The Buddha was not critical of these teachers but said,” Enough, Subhadda, whether they have all had direct knowledge or some of them have had direct knowledge and some not, let that be. I shall teach you the Dhamma, Subhadda.

Listen and attend carefully to what I say”. “Even so, Lord” he replied. “Subhadda, in whatever Dhamma and Discipline the Noble Eightfold Path is not found, there the (first) monk is not found, the fourth monk is not found”. This clearly shows that the Buddha was concerned with the Dhamma he had discovered by self-effort and was not concerned to draw parallels or to decry the Dhamma of other recluses.

In his edicts King Asoka (274 - 237 B.C.) has made several descriptive references to his conception of Dharma which could be adhered to be without being a Buddhist as such. Thus Asoka was making an effort to lead the subjects on an oath of moral upliftment as against religious orthodoxy, which too was the creed of the Buddha, three hundred years before King Asoka.

In Rock Edict III. Asoka defines his Dharma in the following manner: ‘Meritorious is obedience to father and mother, meritorious is generosity (dana) to friends, acquaintances, relatives, brahmins and recluses (sramana), meritorious is abstention from slaughter of animals; meritorious is frugality and non - accumulation of possessions”.

In the Brahmagiri edicts Asoka says, “Father and mother must be served; respect for life should be strengthened; truth should be spoken; the teacher must be reverenced by the pupil; courtesy should be shown to relations in the family; this is the nature of the Ancient Rule, which is conducive to long life”.

In Pillar Edict II, Asoka poses the questions, “What constitute Dharma?... It is avoiding of sinful acts, performance of many meritorious actions, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity”.

Although there is no reference to any teaching of the Buddha direct in the above edict, one could equate it with the Dhammapada stanza ‘Sabba-papassa akaranam; kusalassa upasampada, sa-citta pariyodapanam, etam Buddhana - sasanam”. Abstain from all sinful actions. Do meritorious actions; Cleanse your mind; this is the advice of the Buddha).

Asoka in his Rock Edict VI says, “There is no greater duty for me than accomplishing the welfare of all people.

Asoka does not mention Nibbana as the final goal, as this is the exclusive teaching of the Buddha, but he was addressing people of many faiths, creeds, races, tribes and different mental strengths, and not trying to espouse the cause of any particular religion.

India then and even now has 884 dialects and an equal number of tribes, races and clans as well as castes. Further Hinduism which aggregates to 80 per cent of the one billion plus population of India, has various gods, rites and rituals oriented to villages, regions and ethnic groups. Thus India from time immemorial was heterogenous.

The most significant and also worthy of emulation in the present day is the Rock Edict XII of Asoka, with nearly seven versions in all parts of his kingdom and the frontiers, which could be described as the Magna Carta of Religious Pluralism. Asoka in this Edict says in 11, 12, 13 and 14 lines as follows:-

“King Devanampriya Priyadarsi honours all the religious perceptions and their clergy. He honours them with various gifts and honours. But, Devanampriya does not consider gifts and honours as much as the increase in essence of all religious persuasions”.

King Asoka though a Buddhist he himself acted as per the directives of edicts supporting and helping recluses of other faiths. As per his Cave Inscription I and II he had donated four caves in the Barbara and Khaltika Hills of Gaya to the Avijavakas.