Mindfulness of the body
Those who always earnestly practise ‘mindfulness of the body’ who follow not what should not be done, and constantly do what should be done, of those mindful and reflective ones the corruptions come to an end. (Pakinnaka Vagga - The Dhammapada)

A review: Buddhist theory of development economics

Ananda W. P. Guruge

Development economics: Jagath W. Wickremasinghe. Vice Chancellor of the University of Sri Jayawardanepura Sri Lanka, presented in January 2000 an "Introduction to the Buddhist Theory of Development Economics" with the title "People Friendly Economic Development." Dharmavijaya Foundation which published this paper as a brochure tied it to the following recommendation of the International Buddhist Conference. Colombo 1998:

"From a Buddhist perspective, development is a holistic process which should be directed to meeting the material, social and spiritual needs of human beings. A feasible plan (development should also recognize that human society exists in essential dependence on the broader environment, and developments should not be pursued in ways which threaten the sustaining capabilities of the ecosystem.

The current dominant economic model based on unregulated market economics and rampant consumerism has proved to him inadequate for meeting the above objectives.

To the contrast, this model has led to massive human suffering, the degradation of society, and the unrelenting exploitation of nature. The model has also encouraged narrow fixation on short term economic gains for a privileged few at the expense of the long-term welfare of humanity as a whole.

New model

It is recommended that a new model be evolved which will ensure that no one is deprived of the basic material needs consistent with human dignity. At the same time such a plan of development should recognize that there are natural limits to the fulfillment of people are material needs and that the pursuit of material consumption beyond these limits is harmful both to the individual and society.

A healthy plan of development would encourage human relations governed by a spirit of cooperation, kindness and compassion rather than competition and exploitation in the pursuit of private gains.

For the purpose of evolving such a new model, it is recommended that a committee of innovative Buddhist economic thinkers should be convened to produce, in collaboration with other organizations working out alternative models of development, the outlines of an ethically guided programme of economic and social development. '(Recommendation No.5)

Western thought

Commencing with a learned analysis of Western thought as expressed by Adam Smith. Hobbes, Locke, Hume. Hutcheson, Bentham, Lionel Robins. J.S. Mill and Alfred Marshall, Wickremasinghe points out the evil consequences of self-interest and contradictions in modern economic reasoning and chooses the following as the objective for his study:

The purpose of this essay is to show that there are internal contradictions in the western economic rationale, philosophy and reasoning and are inappropriate guidelines in the voyage of discovery of solution to complex socioeconomic problems of the modern society: and also they misdirect human beings in their endeavour of achieving "human happiness". In fact, it is extremely clear that the responsibility for the creation of the current economic morass, in which we live in lies on the western philosophy, rationale and reasoning.

At crossroads

Now we are at crossroads: either we flounder on an ill-fated search for the type of development based on universal consumption and technology building up a system of social segregation on a global scale driven by self centered power, or else branch off on to fresh ground by accepting the challenge to build a new order which economic system is governed by moral, ethical and spiritual principles, a framework in which respect for nature and containment of human wants would be key social objectives.

It is intended to prove that the Buddha has penetrated far more deep into the working of the socioeconomic system than the western economists were able to and his teaching would provide the required framework for people to remain small actors in the economy.

Aiming to satisfy their needs only, without compromising with perseverance. The main objective of this work is to enlighten the western reader who maxes' be unfamiliar with Buddhist philosophy, which is more people friendly, and the application of Buddhist principles, which is more humanistic in approach to economic development and would provide lasting solutions to modern burning socio-economic problems.

Without subverting the western traditional notion of development, it will be impossible to grapple with problems of growing poverty and inequality and also impossible to incorporate ecological balance into social purpose.

Western economic reasoning will perpetrate the problems by creating a large number of new problems once a solution is found to one problem in view of the Buddha's discourse that there is no limit to craving of human beings and craving is an insatiable phenomenon. (Ratthapala Sutta)

Schumacher's thinking

His view that Buddhist teachings would provide the required framework for "people to remain small actors in the economy" is indicative of the impact of Schumacher's thinking. Wickremasinghe sees that some aspects of socialism and Communism have similarities with the Buddhist thinking.

But he rejects both as "a spent force with the fall of USSR in 1989" and as much concerned with materialism as capitalism is. His criticism of the modern economic system is based on the fact that "it has not only aggravated the poverty and mal-distribution. Income both at local and global levels but it has also made the life of millions of people miserable and this process is still continuing." He quotes copiously from UN and World Bank statistics to prove this point. From the global he gets down to the local situation of Sri Lanka and the statistics he presents are alarming.

Wickremasinghe proceeds to elaborate Right Livelihood (conceived more in line with Schumacher than in the traditional definition of Samma Ajiva in the Noble Eightfold Path) and presents the Buddha's teachings, which Venerable Payutto and Phra Bhavanaviriyakhun have utilized for their model of Buddhist Economics and I have summarized in Section III above. His conclusions on this aspect of the study are the following:

Craving

It is very important to distinguish between consumable objects and craving. Craving is a phenomenon appearing in one's mind. These consumable objects are impermanent.

With that, arise desire or displeasure, and the want to have desirable things permanently in that status for his enjoyment.

Desired things change their status against the wishes of the person and he becomes unhappy. What Buddhism is against is not enjoyment of these objects but lustful attachment towards them.

Consumption according to Buddhist principles is not the final goal of the society. It serves another objective if taken in proper perspective (without craving towards them), i.e.; it permits achievement of the higher status of Nirvana, the ultimate goal of Buddhists. It is unrealistic to go to the extreme extent of pronouncing that wealth is evil and poverty is a blessing.

Consumerism

What is relevant here is that Buddhism is against the type of consumerism followed by our modern societies, but not against people's enjoyment of wealth and improvement of happiness.

The reality is that happiness is impermanent. It would not last long. Once it fades away one faces suffering. This phenomenon is unavoidable. By making efforts to make them permanent, people fall into unwholesome situations.

The permanent "happiness is Nirvana. That is what all Buddhists strive to achieve. That is supra mundane and in economics what has to be determined is mundane objectives, short of this ultimate objective.

Further discussion of motivation for work and modem theory of development brings Wickramasinghe to his thesis that the prevailing theory of development is unsuitable for developing countries.

He says, unsuitability of the modern theory of development for the problems of the developing countries lies on their dismissal of religious and spiritual values as a guiding principle of behavior of individuals.

The rational of the reasoning of these theories is the efficacy of self-centered approach. Of course, there are certain mythical beliefs and rituals, which are a hindrance to development, but as far as the Buddhist way of life is concerned we must emphasize that they are 'growth' promoting rather than 'growth' retarding. Here 'growth' refers to the growth of both spiritual and material advancement, which is long lasting, and human friendly.

The final section of his study has as its heading "Theory of People- friendly Development." Shorn of reiterated criticisms of the modern economic model, the main elements of his theory may be extracted as follows:

In contrast to self-centered economic approaches, a redefinition of accepted objectives of economic development and reformation of strategies adopted are crucial.

The conceptual model should be based on the Buddhist perception that achieving only material targets should be facilitated the achievement of ultimate objective, nirvana.

Project evaluators should not only look into the highest rate of return on investment but also into the social consequences of the project.

Ethical, spiritual and moral factors must be incorporated in social cost-benefit analysis of projects. As each country is assumed to have sufficient resources to meet all the needs but not the wants, the model must concentrate only on human needs.

Objectives of people-friendly development have to be twofold:

a. achievement of material goals of the modern development theory:

b. achievement of the final goal of spiritual advancement, Nirvana bliss. The strategy suitable to achieve these objectives is the application of the Noble Eightfold Path.

The idealist in Wickremasinghe prompts him to urge the adoption of his model, which he has amply argued as capable of eradicating the evil consequences of Adam Smith's model. But the realistic scholar he is has obliged him to assess how feasible his people-friendly model is. He makes two important points: (emphasize mine)

(1) The strategies suitable for the achievement of material objectives are fairly well known. However, the strategies suitable for spiritual objectives will have to be worked out and an environment that is conducive for this has to be established.

As these lopsided economic activities have been in application for centuries, it is not easy to erase them instantaneously. What is required is the 'stages approach'. Initially, the existing materialistic biased economic strategy has to be gradually modified by implementing restrictive aspects of economic activities announced by the Buddha. Drastic changes in attitudes of the individuals are not feasible. A rigorous study has to be made about the psychological aspect of these changes.

(2) One important constraint in this endeavor is the backlash that would result from the international setup. If this system were experimented in one country only, leaving others alone, the backlash from the rest of the world would totally swallow the new system.

Hence, this system has to be simultaneously applied in all countries together to avoid retardiness (Sic!). This is no easy task. However, the purpose of this exercise, as stated earlier is only to enlighten the western reader the availability of an alternative system. Buddhism respects the individual's freedom of choice, hence, the acceptance or the rejection of the alternative system.

In fairness to Wickramasinghe's sincere enthusiasm, it has to be recognized that he has achieved the objective of his study of presenting to his readers the alternative system, which the Buddha's teachings suggest.

Review of J.W. Wickramasinghe's article published in Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism.

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Sunyata: losing face, gaining emptiness

Ven. Jen-chun

Sunyata:In Buddhism we talk about Sunyata.

This talk of Sunyata is essentially trying to tell us to widen our eyes, sharpen our vision, and open our hearts, so that we can gain freedom.

Understanding this fundamental meaning of Sunyata, we will be able to thoroughly examine countless phenomena of the universe. These phenomena refer to heaven, the universe, the earth, and all the phenomena around them.

All the Buddhas are called the Great Enlightened Ones. They have thoroughly awakened to everything.

What is it that they have realized, what have they been enlightened to? They have seen that all things, transcendent and mundane, arise through dependent origination.

Defiled dependent origination gives rise to defiled worlds. Pure dependent origination will create a transcendent world.

If we observe and examine them, we will see that all phenomena, regardless of what they are, arise due to the coming together of all sorts of causes and conditions.

When we look at all the phenomena around us, it is very easy to understand that everything is due to causes and conditions. However, it takes someone with wisdom to be able to see this. An ignorant person, one who is deluded and arrogant, who has a false sense of dignity, won't be able to see the dependent origination of phenomena.

What is this false sense of dignity to which I refer? And what creates it? It is created by our notion of a self. Then what is the meaning of self? It is the subtle consciousness in our mind that inserts into every thought, at every moment, the notion, "this is me," "this is I". "Without ceasing, it investigates and attaches to everything around us the idea "this is me" and "this is also me."

This attachment to the ego-self is created by this notion of a self, by the thought that one is real, that one has a true substance, a permanent substance. Being persistently attached to oneself as having a true substance, one will develop this sense of wanting to control.

When one has access to great power, then one will come into conflict with other people and will want to get things from them - all because of this "face" - this false sense of dignity. One against another, they will come into conflict and will harm and even kill each other because of this notion of a true essence.

For someone who understands Buddhism, the Chinese character for "I" or "self" is quite relevant. It is a combination of two characters that depict a hand holding a sword. This signifies that because of their attachment to an "I", to a "self", humans end up killing other humans.

The Buddha is known as the King of Sunyata. After he realized great enlightenment, he saw that most ordinary people are attached to a self, to an essence, and take that essence to be an ego-self.

Most sentient beings still living in ignorance always think that there is an ego-self, a self-essence. After his enlightenment, the Buddha realized that there was no such thing. He then generated this great compassion to explain to all that life and all phenomena are all dependently arisen. There is no true substance to anything.

Everything is due to the coming together of causes and conditions.

Two kinds of Emptiness interpenetrate, able to free: There are many aspects to Sunyata or Emptiness, but the most important two are: the Sunyata of selflessness and the ultimate Sunyata. Most people are attached to a self-essence, to a substance. Because of that attachment, when they interact with each other, problems arise.

Through observation and analysis, the Buddha realised there is no true substance, no self-arisen, self-existing substance. This is Sunyata of selflessness.

All sorts of conditions are needed to sustain our lives. For example, because we have to eat, we need to go shopping and we need people to cook. So where is that self-existing, independent self? There is no such thing.

If we were to open our minds a little and look beyond the farthest horizons, we still could not find a true substance, whether mundane or transcendent. Here we must be careful, however. Buddhism is not saying that nothing exists.

Actually, everything is established due to this understanding of non-substantiality. With brutish face and aggressive attitude, showing prominent supremacy and might: Many people do not understand the Sunyata of selflessness.

Because of that they ride on emotional roller-coasters. When they become emotional, sometimes their face will turn threatening, brutish, and they will become aggressive, wanting to threaten others. This is a demonstration of the supremacy and might of self. Understanding ultimate Sunyata - true emptiness - we will no longer allow the ego-self to get out of control.

The Buddha told us that regardless of whether it is mundane or transcendent, there is no such thing as a true substance, no truly existent phenomena. And all problems arise due to that attachment to a true substance, a true essence, to true phenomena, to the thought that I am a true body, a true essence, and because I have a true essence, I can command and control everything; everything must be under by control and everyone must be under my command and listen to me.

And due to this notion of an essence, of true phenomena, human beings come in conflict with one another and the result is unbearable suffering.

Entrapped within space, one falls into darkness - old ways and appearance: As human beings, we need "space," a place to dwell. We live at home or we live in a monastery.

If you think that this space that you are living in is yours and yours alone, that "I" is real, then you are wrong. And if you're living in this space and yet you do not make good use of it, then you will fall into darkness. Perhaps in your next rebirth you will be reborn in a lower realm and will have an ugly, unpleasant appearance.

Transcend the era joyfully and brilliantly, voice and face renewed: Those most successful in the practice of the Dharma are the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, and the Arhants.

These are the Noble Ones who have transcended the world; the truth that they have realized is not confined to time. It is all-pervasive through time and space. Even though Buddha Sakyamuni entered parinirvana over 2,550 years ago, his teachings are still living and are always showing up with this brandnew face and renewed voice.

Understanding Sunyata, one will be able to face everything and examine everything and see the illusory nature of all phenomena. Understanding that everything arises due to dependent origination, the mind-gates will open up. If our mind-gate opens up, we will no longer be hindered in mind and obstructed in our vision.

We will not be like those who fear the cycle of birth and death and just seek immediate liberation. Someone who is unobstructed can see those unlimited, superb states that other people cannot see.

What is meant by an unlimited, superb person? 1) Superb person: free of evil. This is a superb person who can see through his or her own defilements. Such a person is free from unwholesomeness. 2) Superb Dharma: Free from attachment. This is someone who is no longer controlled by emotions, someone who is free from attachments. 3) Superb state: free from worry. Those who dwell in such a superb state no longer harm themselves and will no longer be harmed by their own defilements - they will be free from worry.

Courtesy Bodhi Bulletin