Immigrants in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka

KAMALIKA PIERIS

Those immigrating into ancient and medieval Sri Lanka all came from the neighboring kingdoms of present day Tamilnadu and Kerala. The available evidence indicates that those from the Tamil kingdom resisted integration while those from Kerala assimilated and some of them rose to high social and political power.

Tamils were brought into Sri Lanka as mercenary soldiers from the 7th to the 10th century. They arrived in the 14th century as well. This steady influx of Tamil mercenaries into ancient and medieval Sri Lanka shows that the Tamil kingdom had surplus manpower. There is no mention of Sinhala mercenaries going to other countries.

Tamil mercenaries

The Tamil mercenaries who came in the 7th century, refused to go back home after their duties were over. Kassapa II (650-659) tried to expel them but they resisted the order to return and became unruly. They decided to get a king they could control, so they helped Hatthadatha (659-667) come to power.

Hatthadatha was a puppet king. Tamil immigrants remained loyal to India against Sri Lanka. When Pandya prince Srimara Srivallabha invaded Sri Lanka in the time of Sena I (833-853), the resident Tamil population went over to the Pandya king.

Tamil immigrants appear to have been treated with caution. In the 7th century there were strictures against the appointment of Tamils as district chiefs, (rattan) or giving daughters in marriage to them. There were segregated Tamil settlements.

Historical records of the eight century speak of ‘demel kaballa’ (Tamil land allotments), ‘demel gambim’ (Tamil villages) and ‘demel kuli’ (dues from Tamil allottees). The village of Kinigama had a separate section named ‘demel kinigam.’

There was a ‘demela adhikari’ in the time of Sena II (853-887) and Kassapa IV (898-914). This position was held by a Sinhalese. He was responsible for the promulgation of immunity grants to the Tamil lands.

Muslims had settled in Sri Lanka by the end of the 7th century. They took over the dispatch of export goods to the west. The first arrivals were from West Asia. I think that these Muslim traders were treated as aliens.

In the 8th century, the king had sent back to Baghdad, the orphaned daughters of some Muslim merchants who had died in Sri Lanka. This indicates that that these merchants came under the Caliph and the king did not wish to be responsible for those left behind.

There was a second wave of Muslims from Kalynapattam in Tamilnadu starting from the 13 century. Their settlements were by the sea. So were their mosques, the Portuguese saw them from their ships. Sandesa poems speak of Muslims who spoke Tamil and sang Tamil songs. I think that these Muslims were also treated as aliens, because when the Portuguese expelled them they went to king Senerat saying they had nowhere to go.

Buddhist statues

Mendis notes that the Muslims steered clear of the fire and sword policies. I think that the Muslims had no choice in the matter. They were in Sri Lanka at the pleasure of the Sinhala king. External trade came directly under the king. They would have been expelled if they started decapitating Buddhist statues.

Mendis and Dewaraja say that relations between Muslims and Sinhalese were very cordial. Ibn Batuta said that when he visited in 1344, Muslims were in a position of privilege and even of power in certain areas. I think that the Sinhalese kept their distance from the Muslims.

Suleiman said that initially, the Sinhalese did not have any dealings with the Muslims and did not dine with them. When Sheikh Abu Abdallah Khalif, who arrived in 929 AD, went on a pilgrimage, the Sinhalese avoided him.

The Sinhalese did not like Muslim interest in the gem trade either and did not give the Muslims easy access to the interior. Suleiman said the Sinhalese had prevented the Muslims from visiting Sri Pada.

Muslim rule

Historians say that many families, including those from Kerala, migrated to Sri Lanka to escape to escape Muslim rule in south India. I think that Sri Rahula probably came from one of these families. He is said to have come from the Skandavara family (Kandavuru kula) which is of Kerala origin. He was influential in the royal court of his time. The families of Sena Lankadhikara and Alagakkonara belong to the Kerala families that had migrated to Sri Lanka to escape Muslim rule.

Sena Lankadhikara’s descendants retained their Malayalam names and titles. The Alagakkonaras, who were a rich Kerala trading family, changed their name to the Sanskrit ‘Alkesvara’. Paranavitana says both families married into the royal family. He says that Sena Lankadhikara was married to a sister of Buvaneka bahu IV and that Vickramabahu III (1359-1374) was his son. Alakesvara and his two brothers were joint husbands of Jayasiri, the sister of Vikramabahu III and mother of Buvaneka bahu V (1374-1408).

These two families monopolized the position of chief minister for decades. Sena Lankadhikara was Chief Minister to Buvaneka bahu IV (1341-1351) and Parakrama bahu V (1351-1359). The position was similar to the modern ‘Prime Minster’ and carried the designation ‘Lankadhikara’. It carried much power. The Alakesvaras thereafter displaced Sena, and held on to the position for half a century.

Nephew Virabahu and son Kumara Alakesvara succeeded to the position thereafter. Paranavitana says Kumara was probably the son of Queen Jayasiri, and therefore brother of the reigning king. Then Vira Alakesvara took over the position. When Vira Alakesvara was taken prisoner to China the grandson of Sena stepped into the post.

(The writings of M Azeez, Bandu de Silva, K.M. de Silva, L. Dewaraja, P.A.T. Gunasinghe, S. Kiribamune, S. Paranavitana, W.I. Siriweera, G.V.P. Somaratne and W.M.K .Wijetunga were used for this essay).