Under-exploiting environmental friendliness of rubber plantations
N. Yogaratnam ( PhD, London)
Chairman/ Tree crops Agro Consultants
Picture by Saliya Rupasinghe
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Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) has retained many features from it's
Amazonion origins as an environmentally friendly forest tree, although
it has been cultivated as a plantation crop for latex with wood as a
side-product and now for carbon credits.
One key factor in the relationship between any activity and the
environment is that it is impossible to consider any individual activity
without reference to the overall impact. In the case of the rubber
industry, it is helpful to break down the activities which impinge upon
the environment ( Table 1) into those associated with (1) the production
of the raw material, (2) the transformation of the raw material into
finished products (3) the use of such products in service and (4) the
final recycling or disposal of the products.
Many studies relating to the last-named, such as investigations of
the scrap tyre problem, fail to recognise the importance of the other
elements which may either amplify or mitigate the problem.
It is unavoidable that many authors tend to base their analysis upon
natural rubber, frequently in comparison with synthetic rubber, but many
of the factors (such as factory emissions, product service and ultimate
disposal) apply to all elastomers.
In most discussions on the environment resources are divided into
renewable and nonrenewable categories. The former includes most natural
products. The latter includes most mineral resources, although many of
these are recyclable, and fossil fuels.
The Scandinavians tend to consider their large hydroelectric capacity
as a green resource. Fossil fuels are not only non-renewable, but their
combustion contributes to increases in global carbondioxide levels and a
possible green house effect which may even lead to higher ocean levels
and the loss of global land mass.
Industrial material
Natural rubber is an unusual industrial material as it is renewable
resource. As such natural rubber enjoys very considerable environmental
benefits, and these have tended to be understated in most discussions.
In broad energy input terms, natural rubber enjoys a very considerable
advantage over synthetic elastomers, whose energy inputs is in the
region of 210 - 275 GJ / tonne, as against 30 - 35 GJ / tonne in NR
production.
It is probable that the synthetic rubber industry has now reduced its
energy inputs for processing and that the use of yield stimulation etc
may marginally increase the energy consumed in natural rubber production
besides increased fuel costs.
Nevertheless, the natural rubber production data assumes
long-distance transportation for the raw rubber from the producing
countries to the major consumers.
Rubber wood
Since there has been a significant shift in rubber product
manufacturing to the natural rubber producing countries and this will
have marginally reduced energy inputs, although these will have been
balanced (except in the case of latex goods) by increased energy costs
for the transport of manufactured goods.
In the case of latex goods, the non-transport of water around the
world must represent a very considerable environmental gain.
The use of rubber wood is growing rapidly and Hevea is even being
grown primarily as a source of timber, with rubber being produced as a
by-product. Rubber wood is used in furniture, flooring , building
components, chipboard, etc and enjoys a growing market. Obviously, the
timber so-produced is an eco-friendly material and it is highly
pertinent to note that some of the companies involved are subjecting
rubber wood production to environmental audits.
It has been estimated that the energy input for wood as a raw
material is about 6 GJ / tonne as compared with 38 GJ / tonne for steel
and around 100 GJ / tonne for most thermoplastics.
CO2 sequestration
The most understated aspect of rubber cultivation is that of a sink
for the carbondioxide which is produced by animals (including man), the
natural combustion of plant tissue, and especially through the burning
of fossil fuels. Photosynthesis enables the carbondioxide to be
converted into life-sustaining oxygen whilst fixing the carbon as
biomass.
Hevea's effectiveness in this respect is probably at least equal to
that of virgin forest and may even exceed it.
Tropical forests, which cover 20 percent of the earth's surface,
account for at least 25 percent of global terrestrial carbon fixation,
and it is becoming increasingly recognised that the forest makes a major
contribution to global ecology. Hevea rubber compares well with virgin
jungle in terms of biomass, especially once the trees reach maturity.
Physiological studies have shown that Hevea is more effective than teak
grown in plantation conditions in taking up carbondioxide.
This is probably due to the extra energy required to produce the
latex inside the tree: thus, in contrast to a synthetic rubber plant,
which consumes energy and produces carbondioxide to convert pure energy
( crude oil) into elastomers, the natural rubber plant converts carbon
dioxide into an elastomer.
The biomass production potential of a plant species is related to its
photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf area and the total leaf area
produce per plant. In full sunlight the photosynthetic rate of a mature
rubber leaf is around 11 æmol/m2/s1 as compared with 5 - 13 æmol/m2/s1
in other tree species. The leaf area produced by a mature rubber tree is
quite substantial : the leaf area index of a mature rubber plantation
can be as high as 6 or 7. Because of the high photosynthetic rate and
leaf area index, the biomass production per unit land area within a
given time is very high in Hevea. With a planting density of 500 trees
per hectare the canopy closes in less than five years.
Agronomic efficiency
Natural rubber does not impoverish the land upon which it is grown.
Fertiliser inputs are very low and the surrounding soil appears to be
enriched by the abundant leaf fall.
Furthermore, biodiversity remains remarkably high in rubber
plantations in marked contrast to most forms of monoculture. Excellent
agronomic techniques assist in the conservation of the environment
within rubber plantations.
Measures include terracing, slit pitting, bunding and mulching and
the growth of leguminous cover plants between the rows to assist with
nitrogen fixation. Biomass burning is now discouraged during replanting.
Moreover, it is possible to grow a wide variety of crops during the
tree's immature period, further enhancing its environmental credentials.
Energy inputs
It is possible to produce dry rubber with remarkably low energy
inputs especially if maximum use is made of human and solar energy. It
is possible to produce air-dried sheet solely by the exploitation of
these two forms of energy. Most dry rubber and latex concentrate
production does exploit modest inputs of electricity ( which in many
producing countries is green power from hydro generators) and other
forms for drying. Obviously energy is also required to convert dry
rubber into a form where it can be shaped and vulcanised.
Unfortunately, primary processing of natural rubber can lead to
significant environmental pollution, especially of water courses and
through localized unpleasant odours. Considerable progress has been made
in reducing water-borne pollution. especially in India, Malaysia and Sri
Lanka. But, in most countries, a considerable problem still remains.
This endangers many other activities such as the use of water for
agriculture for industrial use and for fish cultivation.
In-service segment
There are both positive and negative environmental factors in the
in-service segment of an elastometric product life cycle. The positive
factors include a reduction in environmental noise., although tyre noise
is a major contributor to environmental disturbance from roads,
especially where vehicles travel at high speed. A clear positive
contribution to noise and vibration control is to be found in the
application of elastometric mountings and bearings.
The negative factor, for it is essentially one, is that the main
outlet of rubber is in association with the automotive industry. The
road transport industry accounts for disproportionate uptake of the
world's natural resources. In the USA, it has been reported that
approximately 25 per cent of crude oil is consumed in personal
transportation.
This industry is a major contributor to global increases in
carbondioxide emissions and endangers health, especially that of
children, through asthma and other dangers. It must be stressed that
these effects are not directly associated with the use of rubber, but
that the system which induces them is inherently dependent upon rubber
for its tyres, its engine mounts, its weatherstrip and so on.
In the product lifecycle, it is seen that the energy required to
manufacture or dispose of a passenger car tyre is trivial in proportion
to that associated with its use in service.
The need for physical travel will be reduced by the general
availability of modern methods of telecommunication and increases in
computing power. As is so often the case with global problems, solutions
are found just when the problem appears to be becoming insurmountable.
Working at home is increasing and this will go some way towards
resolving the problem for some people of commuting by road. People may
learn to make less use of their personal vehicles and make greater use
of public transport.
The United Kingdom's Royal Commission towards public transport
considered the human attitudes will have to be changed towards public
transport.
Obviously, if this happens there will be a decrease in the demand for
elastomers especially in the traditional western markets, but this will
be offset by uptake in the developing nations which really need road
vehicles to survive - to avoid localised famine and disease and to
provide relief from natural disasters.
Product life extension
Product life extension is an important contributor to lessening the
environmental impact of any activity. This can either be achieved by
extending the life of individual components, or through prolonging the
life of the system in which they are situated, or both. In some cases it
may be possible to prolong product life through reconstruction once or
more during the lifecycle.
An excellent example of this was the multiple retreading of aircraft
tyres. The automotive industry demands that products should , as far as
possible, last for the entire life of the vehicle and this has greatly
affected the character of many elastrometric components.
At one time, cautious motorists used to carry spare fan belts and
even radiator hose as it was anticipated that there was a reasonable
probability of failure. Such caution is no longer required. Hose and
belts last the life of a vehicle unless some catastrophe occurs. Wiper
blades and tyres are still changed, but at decreasing intervals.
It has been predicted some time ago that car tyres will last for the
life of the vehicle within the period 2010 - 2020 and that truck tyres
will have 2,400,000 km casings. These forecasts are probably to be no
more than wishful thinking. Nevertheless, some progress is being made
towards increasing tyre life.
Careful design of tyres can save weight and reduce fuel consumption
and thus produce marginal improvements in what is an extremely wasteful
system. Similar enhancements could be achieved by reduced speed limits.
Such measures would also reduce pollution and would marginally increase
road capacity. Reduced speed limits would also encourage the use of
other less wasteful transport modes such as train services.
Retreding
An increase in retreading activity is probably the greatest
contribution made by the tyre industry. There had been far greater
retreading activity in truck tyres, than in passenger tyres, and as
noted aircraft tyres were routinely retreaded many times. The lack of a
vigorous retreading industry for passenger tyres stems from (1) the
great variety of sized and styles of original equipment, (2) the
relatively low carcass strength ( which partially reflects the quest for
lower weight to reduce fuel consumption), and (3) the dangerous tendency
for car drivers to use tyres to beyond the point at which they are
retread able - and safe. There is also a lack of the strong
infrastructure which enables companies to have their tyres serviced on a
routine basis : this infrastructure enables retreading to be performed
as part of a tyre supply operation. Clearly, it is impossible to
envisage such an operation for private cars, unless Government
regulation and standardization are imposed. Such an imposition would
have the benefit of discouraging motorists to drive with tyres which are
no longer fit for service.
Recycling
A few elastomeric products are disposable, especially those
manufactured from latex ( gloves and balloons, for instance). In the
case of balloons these will naturally degrade within about a month if
left upon the ground. Unfortunately, medical gloves have to be burned
alongside other disposable medical items to eliminate the pathogens
which may be present.
Elastomers are difficult to recycle. The problem can be eased through
the use of thermoplastic elastomers, although damage in service (
especially through exposure to fuels and the combustion products from
fuels) may lessen the value of such materials to a point below which it
is valid to expend the effort required for recycling. It is possible to
reclaim rubber but this industry is only exploited on a large scale in
India where there is a plentiful supply of labour and the demand for
elastomeric raw materials greatly exceeds the supply.
It must be remembered that the carbondioxide produced is not a
problem for the natural rubber element of the tyres as this will be
recycled by the rubber trees that produced it in the same way that it is
possible to grow biomass as source of fuel Pyrolysis is interesting as
there is no air pollution problem and the products other than heat, are
in the form of gases ( which can be burned), solids include a form of
carbon black, which if the input consists predominantly of natural
rubber, can be clamed to be 'green".
There is a growing recognition that the global ecosystem cannot
continue to tolerate the present wasteful use of materials. The rubber
industry is fortunate in that over one third of its key raw material is
based upon a self-sustaining resource which is not only capable of
reabsorbing the carbon dioxide generated from its disposal and through
it use, but also provides timber as valuable, environmentally-friendly
by-product. The natural rubber industry is based upon minimal
environmental disturbance, and is far less than that required to produce
typical food crops. Nevertheless, it cannot be forgotten that the
primary end use is in personal transportation, much of which is
extremely wasteful in terms of resources.
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