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by Andrew Scott

Robert Knox's Historical Relation of Ceylon published in 1681 was the first important historical work concerning Sri Lanka written in English.

It was primarily written to introduce English readers to the strange ways of an exotic people living in the Kandyan kingdom of ancient Sri Lanka in about the 17th century.

Even during his time this book was widely read, appreciated and translated into a number of European languages. So it would have been read by both king and commoner to whet their curiosity to know details about the life and activities of the Kandyan kingdom about which they could have known from mere hearsay.

Early writers such as Rhys Davids (1877) commenting about Knox's Historical Relation noted: "This most valuable work is thoroughly trustworthy. Knox and his companions were not confined in any prison, but in separate villages, where they were allowed to go in and out among the people".

Commenting on the same book Ralph Peiris said: "If Knox's Perennial classic is remarkable for its almost uncanny accuracy, it also exhibits the intimacy which can only be gained by a participant observer who has spent a considerable time among the people he studies, participating in their way of life".

In the Historical Relation Knox gives much information about the Kandyan society during his time and deals on a variety of sensitive subjects such as the caste structure, marriage customs, religious practices and beliefs, the judicial system and the political system.

Most of the information given by him has been drawn from his personal experience and from various reliable sources he had come in contact with through the years as he had been wandering in the Kandyan villages selling his wares and meeting people of various strata in society who had taken a liking towards him.

Because of these reasons Knox's Historical Relations had become one of the most important source books of the Kandyan society. The first part of this book deals with the social organization and the latter part deals with the personal story of his capture and escape from Sri Lanka. He writes in detail about the island's geography, agriculture, natural history, social structure, the history of the Kandyan kingdom and its administration.

It is interesting to note that Knox had no intention whatsoever of publishing his book until he was encouraged to do so by those who read his script such as Sir Josiah Child of the East India Company and John Strype. The Royal Society of London too contributed largely towards the publication of this book.

In his description of the social conditions of the Kandyan Kingdom Knox deals very much with marriage and marriage customs prevalent at that time. He mentions that there was a casual attitude towards marriage and that there existed a system of polyandry.

He also mentions that extra-marital and casual connections were widely prevalent in the then society. About the casual nature of marriage in the Kandyan kingdom he says:

"The chief farmer of a town where I dwelt four years, died and my house was adjoining under the same roof, Therefore could not but take notice that the second or third night after his death my landlady had another husband to comfort her. It was so common that none but I admired at it, which was because I had not been long in this country. Afterwards I saw it was the common custom".

According to Knox adultery was not tolerated by the Kandyan society and public prostitution was completely prohibited. He says: "Indeed here are no public whores allowed by authority. In the city some have followed that trade have often times by the king's order been severely published by whipping and having their ears and hair cut off. But in private few or none can exempt themselves".

In marriage much weightage was given to one's caste and rank and the marriage ceremonies, specially of the poor, were very simple and royal marriages were conducted with much pomp and pageantry. The Kandyans were strictly caste ridden and caste played the most dominant role in all their marriages.

In this connection Knox says: "it is not accounted any shame or fault for a man of the highest sort to lay with a woman far inferior to himself, nay of the very lowest degree". When persons married slaves too went with them and this practice had been common in the Kandyan kingdom. Knox's account also indicates early marriage of girls in the Kandyan kingdom".

According to Knox the Kandyan society encouraged the early dissolution of marriage and re-marriage was a common practice. Regarding this Knox observes: "But their marriages are but of little force or validity for they disagree and mislike one the other, they part without disgrace...... Both men and women do commonly wed four or five times before they can settle themselves to their contentment".

With reference to religion which formed an important component in life in the Kandyan kingdom Knox says: "They reckon the chief points of goodness to consist in giving to the priests, in making sacrifices to their Gods.... It is accounted religion to be just and sober and chast and true and to be endowed with other virtues, as we do account it".

Commenting about adultery Knox says that there was a traditional belief that a man had the right to kill the wife and the adulterer if they were caught in the act. This shows that there was a strong social attitude against adultery. Even the king had condemned adultery and Knox says: "He allows not in his court whoredom or adultery; and many times when he hears of the misdemeanors of some of his nobles in regard to women, he not only executes them but severely punishes the women, if known: and he hath so many spies that there is but little done, which he knows not of".

According to Knox there were no strict ideas about virginity in the early Kandyan society as he says: "They do not matter or regard whether their wives at the first marriage be maids or not."

Several references to the dowry system are found in this book and it is stated that the dowry was accepted by the society as the exclusive property of the wife and the husband had no claim to it whatsoever.

Regarding the practice of giving dowry Knox mentions: "They do give according to their ability a portion of cattle, slaves and money with their daughters, but if they choose to mislike one the other and part asunder this portion must be returned again, and then she is fit for another man, being as they account never the worse for wearing."

He refers to the existence of a system of polyandry and says: "In this country even the greatest hath but one wife; but a woman often has two husbands. For it is lawful and common with them for two brothers to keep house together with one wife, and the children do acknowledge and call both fathers."

The lifestyle and activities of the upper classes of society are also detailed by Knox. He portrays the upper classes as a privileged lot who led a luxurious life amidst plenty. They had spacious houses with courtyards, servants and slaves; but the poorest class had one roomed houses, usually thatched.

The average villager in the Kandyan kingdom had been very hospitable. Regarding this hospitality Knox says: "When I travelled either a peddling or on other occasion I used to look for a house that had a maduwa or hall, which many houses have and willingly give strangers entertainment which is pots of dressed victuals and a mat to lay on the ground to sleep on, which did as well refresh my weary body after hard travelling with a load on my back as if I had lain on the softest bed with curtains round about me."

He alleges that people often destroyed their new born infants who had evil planetary influences and says: "They had no midwives but the neighbouring good women come in and do that office.

As soon as the child is born, the father or some friend apply themselves to an astrologer to inquire whether the child be born in a prosperous planet, and a good hour or in an evil. If it is found to be in an evil they presently destroy it, either by starving it or letting it lie and die, or by drowning it, putting its head into a vessel of water, or by burying it alive, or else by giving it to somebody of the same degree with themselves, who often will take such children, and bring them up by hand."

The early Kandyan social system was such that the people depended very much on astrologers about whom Knox says: "In all important family events these astrologers were consulted. They tell them also when the old year ends to the very minute, at which time they cease from all work, except the king's."

He gives graphic details about the agricultural practices of that time and describes the various traditional customs farmers diligently followed specially in the cultivation and harvesting of paddy, the main source of food.

As far as religion is concerned worshipping at the temples, going on pilgrimages and worshipping gods had been practised. Even in diseases the people believed that gods could help them more than even medicines. Another important religious activity has been the participation in the Kandy Dalada Perahera and the village Dewala peraheras.

At the same time religious festivities had been made use of by the Kandyans as an occasion for merry making. In the field of education temples were the seats of learning and culture and no one went against the advice of the Buddhist priests who were held in the highest esteem by the people.

Crime was less and the punishments were severe - mutilating a part of the criminal's body, inducing punishments to give unbearable pain and the penalty of death of beheading the criminal, by getting him killed by specially trained ferocious elephants or placing him on a spike or by tying him to a tree in the jungle where hungry wild animals devoured him for food.

Thus facts in Knox's Historical Relation about the Kandyan society of the 17th century give us a good idea of the social structure of the then Kandyan society.

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