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by Rajitha Weerakoon

How did the economic and commercial development in the Northwest of Sri Lanka have an impact on the island's political affairs in the first millennium BC? And how did Rajarata emerge politically as the most powerful kingdom with all roads leading to Anuradhapura?

Kala oya-watery wonder of the Rajarata

The focus of attention in the ancient chronicles was on political affairs and the development of Buddhism. Documentation on the economy and any references made were recorded only in a political context. The economy as it existed can therefore be analysed based on interpretations made by scholars and assumptions on available evidence.

Evolution of the economy commenced with the significant migration to Sri Lanka from the Indian sub continent which, according to former Commissioner of Archaeology, Dr. Shiran Deraniyagala occurred from around 1000BC. According to him migrants arrived attracted by water and prime agricultural land and those who came possessed a basic idea about the techniques of paddy cultivation.

There may have been many isolated groups of these early settlers and they may have had their own regional leaders with their individual administrative systems in operation in the "janapada" (colonies) they set up as Kuveni's episode suggests. A monarchical system of administration however was set in motion by Vijaya. We see a distinct pattern in the locations of the island's early capital cities - always in close proximity to rivers. Mahavamsa declares Thammannawa as the island's first capital which is speculated to have been located by the Malvatu river in the Northwest. Some believe that the second capital - Upatissa Nagaraya was located near the mouth of Malvatu river, south of Thammannawa while others say, it was located north of Anuradhagramaya on the banks of "Kadambi" (Kandara) river.

The third capital city - Panduvasnuwara was, within a short time shifted to Anuradhapura, which once again was situated on the banks of the Malvatu Oya.

Long before monarchs set up capital cities in an organised state the 'Stone Age Man' 37,000 years ago was present in Sabaragamuwa. Further remains of homo sapiens of 8000 years later, were found in Kuruwita, Sabaragamuwa. But taking stock of geographical factors such as excessive rain and the rough terrain of the Wet Zone, these early settlers may have gradually moved to the dry Zone. And with the flood gates opened around 1000-900BC due to water and prime agricultural land attracting migrants to cross over from the sub continent, the Northwest got crowded, while the wet zone remained underpopulated.

The pattern of early settlements in pre-historic times clearly reveals that our earliest ancestors as well as settlers of the latter stage, depended on rain-fed agriculture. They chose to settle down near rivers when they realised that agriculture, their main occupation, was not possible during the off-rainy season. 

Irrigation

Food requirements increased with the expansion of the population and with it the demand for more water. The need therefore was realised to store water to be used for agriculture in the dry months. At the beginning, they used ponds and dug wells and later, village tanks were built under the leadership of regional leaders for small-scale irrigation. The Mahavamsa mentions of a tank built by Anuradha, Vijaya's Minister near the Kadamba river. To this date, we see the Northwest dotted with hundreds of small tanks. The drainage from the eastern high ground going waste, was tapped by these small tanks. Villages sprang up around these tanks as shown by name of early villages mentioned in the Mahavamsa such as Sumanavaapigaama, Handavivaapigaama and Pelivaapikagaama - vaapi meaning tank.

Thus commenced the evolution of the ancient irrigation system giving way to the birth of a civilisation. The pioneer hydraulic engineer - King Pandukabhaya (474-407BC) who may have taken up the cue from small tank-buildings, built the first massive tank in history - Abhaya Tank (known today as Basuwakkulama tank) as early as the 5th century BC on the right bank of the Malvatu Oya. His great grandson - Devanampiyatissa (307-267BC) built the second tank - Tissawewa, further up, also on the right bank of Malvatu Oya in Anuradhapura - which reflects the increased demand that arose for more water by a fast growing population around Anuradhapura.

The expansion of the irrigation system resulted in the rapid growth of agriculture. Farmers had to pay for water to the private tank owners. This was the beginning of Sri Lanka's revenue system. Once the king became the tank builder, he imposed taxes for using water and these taxes emerged as the chief source of income of the state. Taxes were initially paid with the produce of the land or with labour but the necessity for the use of money may have arisen once the foreign traders appeared on the Sri Lankan radar screen.

The vast strides that agriculture made, led the population to boom. When Vijaya arrived, his ministers set up eight "janapada" naming these after them. Colonies when increased in number became villages and several villages together graduated into cities and gave rise to an urban culture.

According to Dr. Deraniyagala, this phenomenon took place in Anuradhapura parallel to that of the Ganges Valley in North India. According to him excavations in Anuradhapura showed that Anuradhapura was a city hundred acres in extent by 700-600BC. People had been cultivating the land, there was the use of iron and there was advanced pottery. People were breeding horses and had domestic cattle. Recent excavations in Gedige, Anuradhapura unearthed symbols of letters that date back to the eighth century BC while Brahmi scripts found in Anuradhapura date to the 6th century BC. This was long before history identified Anuradhapura as the capital city and many centuries before the arrival of Buddhism!

With the increase of the population, people's needs expanded. Paddy cultivation involved work only during certain seasons of the year. Therefore, people may have tried their hands at industries when time hung on their hands.

Industries

Records reveal that from very early history, people engaged themselves in industries and arts and crafts involving gems and pearls, bronze, carpentry, textiles, weaving and handloom, sculpture, murals and terracotta.

A rock inscription mentions of mawatu laddan which probably refers to those who were responsible for Mahathiththa Port or customs-officers posted at this port. Nayantivu inscription mentions of a tax imposed on navigators that allowed ships that needed repair, to enter the ports.

Both chronicles and rock inscriptions mention of a post called Bhandagaraka that existed in early Anuradhapura era. With a tax-system in operation, the need for a Bhandagaraya or a Treasury may have arisen to keep accounts. The person holding this post of Ganaka as mentioned in rock inscriptions, may have been responsible for the keeping of accounts of the Treasury.

Mention is also made of Adeka probably Adhyakshaka (Director) and of Panara Adeka (Director of Finance). It may have been imperative to make such appointments in the department of finance to manage the growing and diversifying economy.

And with the economy rolling, transport inevitably had become a vital sector that needed to be administered as we see from the following designations: Sivka Adeka Authority or Director of palanquins and other vehicles, Athi Adeka - Authority on elephants and Asa Adeka - Director/horses.

The introduction of Buddhism in the third century BC caused the arts and crafts turned out by ancient artisans to gain further finesses. Emperor Asoka sent 18 groups (castes) of people who engaged in 18 kinds of arts, crafts and industries from the subcontinent along with Theri Sanghamitta. The result was a fusion of art which set new aesthetic standards. This in turn may have impacted on the economy as exports confined to exquisite items.

And with Anuradhapura becoming a leading centre of Buddhism in Asia, the seaports also played a key role in the propagation of Buddhism. The Mahavihara in Anuradhapura was considered the all-important centre of Buddhist Teaching enjoying university status. Ancient literature records Mahavihara as being the venue of advanced discourses on Buddhism between Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis.

These institutions as a result, attracted many religious scholars, dignitaries and emissaries from overseas especially from the Indian subcontinent for scholastic dhamma studies while the pious arrived seeking spiritual attainment in the sacred city of Anuradhapura. Therefore, while Anuradhapura reached the peak in Buddhist activity in the first millennium BC, the two-fold economy of Rajarata, based on trade and agriculture thrived on the other side of the scale.

The economy of Ruhuna, was largely agriculture-based with trade playing a lesser role. An inscription in the South mentions of an order given by Gotabhaya -the father of Kavantissa that taxes earned in the port - Godavaya - should be used to upkeep the nearby Viharaya. During Gotabhaya's reign in Magampura, goods had been imported and exported with taxes imposed on them but evidence of trade-activities in these ports had been evidently far less than in the ports of the northwestern coast. However, navigators of the silk and the spice routes probably had to stop over at Godavaya port for want of servicing of their naval vessels when trading may have taken place.

Invasions

Therefore, while the high-profile economy and the religious significance of Anuradhapura made Rajarata the most prized kingdom that made rulers such as Dutugamunu and Valagamba restless until they conquered it, the thriving economy also beckoned migrants and invaders to the island. Throughout Sri Lanka's ancient history, we find invaders from the states of Chola, Pandya, Madhura and Kalinga arriving in Sri Lanka to seize power, through the gateway in the Northwestern coast.

History however, does not record of such invasions when there was political stability under kings such as Pandukabhaya, Devanampiyatissa, Dutugamunu and Bhatika Abhaya.

Although there had been a severe lapse of defensive measures taken at the entry points in the Northwestern coast, the favourite strategy adopted by many kings to prevent foreign invasions was to seek marriage with the Royal families of India.

Mahavamsa records the first political marriage in history as that of Vijaya who brought a Pandyan princess from Madhurapura to be his Queen. His Royal Court advised him to enter into marriage with royalty as this was a requirement for the royal abhisheka ceremony (coronation). The other reason may have been to befriend a possible invader or to receive assistance in case of invasion from another South Indian kingdom.

Mahavamsa mentions of Vijaya sending costly gifts - shell pearls from the shallow seas off the Northwest to the Pandyan King. Was it to demonstrate the riches of his kingdom and if he was not ruling a wealthy state, would the Pandyan king have sent his daughter to Sri Lanka?

Panduvasdev (504-474 BC), Vijaya's nephew who succeeded him, too married an Indian princess, Bhaddakachchana of kshatriya caste said to be a relative of Lord Buddha. Six of her brothers followed the sister to Sri Lanka. Once again, is it pertinent to ask that if there was no economic prosperity, would the brothers have followed the sister?

The kshatriya clan who set foot in the Dambakola Patruna, set up their own independent kingdoms in the east contributing to the agricultural and cultural development of the area in pursuit of what was most likely a sound economy. 

Pandukabhaya 

The king who made the greatest impact on Sri Lankan economy in the first millennium BC however was Pandukabhaya (437-407BC). The first indigenous king of Lanka, he was the first to wage a war and bring the country under one rule. Identified as the island's pioneer hydraulic engineer, he built the first massive tank Abhayawewa in Rajarata launching a hydraulic civilisation that continued to enrich the economy for centuries. He thereafter imposed a systematic revenue system on the farmers who irrigated their land using water of this tank and imposed a tax on the traders. Under an accelerated economy, Pandukabhaya deemed it necessary to set up three administrative divisions in the island to ease administration and divided the country into 3 divisions using Mahaweli and Deduru rivers as its boundaries, a division that lasted through many centuries. While these measures reflect the economic prosperity that existed, Dr. Deraniyagala reveals that Anuradhapura was a bustling commercial centre long before the reign of Pandukabhaya. 

Therefore, Pandukabhaya's historically significant landmark decision to officially shift the capital city from Panduvasnuwara to Anuradhapura may have been purely economic. Devanampiyatissa, following his ancestor's footsteps, built the second giant tank - Tisawewa in Anuradhapura. Besides his contribution to the economy his genius was as a strategist. To prevent invasions from the southern states of India, he befriended Emperor Asoka by sending emissaries with precious gifts and requesting him to send the necessary regalia for his abhisheka ceremony. 

There is no proof to say that this action of King Devanampiyatissa was to demonstrate his allegiance to the mighty Mauryan monarch. But it was certainly a ploy to strengthen his rule and to seek the Emperor's assistance in case of any invasions from southern Indian states. The result was the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka which changed the entire course of Sri Lanka's history. His brothers however who succeeded him, did not possess his strategic foresight.

The reign of Suratissa (274-237 BC), Devanampiyatissa's brother came to an end when Chola adventurers - Sena and Guththika who arrived for horse-trading, ended up as rulers for 22 years from 237-215 BC. King Asela, Devanampiyatissa's youngest brother, chased away the two horse-traders, but barely ten years later, the Chola prince - Elara from the Pandyan state invaded and ruled Rajarata from 205-161BC - for 44 years, which proves that the Sinhala king did not have the foresight to realize that invasions had to be expected when economy flourished. (To be continued)

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