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Wildlife conservation, achieving conservation goals through promoting development

by Dayananda Karyawasam , Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation

Eco-development is one of the few buzzwords that are currently in fashion. The 'eco" part is derived from the Greek word for "home", and hence both economists and ecologists claim to have the common goal of working for the welfare of mankind. Yet, in reality, economists and ecologists have often been at loggerheads. Despite its wealth of natural resources, Sri Lanka still ranks as one of the economically underdeveloped nations in the world, heavily dependent on foreign aid for its survival.

We are facing a dilemma: as one of the custodians of rich biodiversity and charismatic megafauna, we are forced to assume responsibility for the protection. Yet at the same time, faced with an expanding human population, collapsing economy and crippling foreign debt, we are in desperate need of new resources to bolster the ailing economy.

This is why, until recently, much of the emphasis of our development policy has been on improving the island's economic growth since it was assumed to be synonymous with development. Indicators of the nation's progress were measured in terms of gross national product and per capita income, with scant regard to the environmental costs such development entails. Even international donor agencies tied their loans to projects that had the potential to enhance economic growth, with little concern for the environment.

Concern for environmental issues has often been viewed by development agencies either as a luxury many Third World countries can ill afford, or as anti-development, and therefore against the interest of the poor. Today, however many enlightened economists and donor agencies have come to realize that economic growth alone cannot lead to long term economic prosperity of a nation, if it is destructive to the environment and the natural resources.

In the past, much of our environmental problems was attributed to the explosive growth in human population, currently estimated to be about 20 million and growing at an annual rate of 2.1%. It is simply not a matter of numbers. In the West, even with much less dense human populations, environmental issues have become critical. Neglect of the environment over the years has reduced greatly the power of our natural resources to sustain their productivity.

When productivity of natural resources decline, the problem of poverty becomes more acute and visible. Today, the Forest Department (FD) and the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) administer almost 30% of the island's land area, of which the DWC accounts for almost 13% - a notable achievement for a Third World country.

Nevertheless, we have not been able to achieve our conservation goals, as a result of the loss of habitat from the need to feed an expanding human population. Given the small size of the island and the relatively dense human population of almost 300 per sq. km., it is no longer possible to increase the extent of our protected areas.

Ecological roots

In many instances, it is difficult to know where a reserve ends and a village begins, as people driven by poverty encroach into protected areas to survive. We need to understand the ecological roots of poverty if we are to succeed in conservation. Years of indifference to the environmental consequences of our economic development have contributed to the present crises facing the Department of Wildlife Conservation.

The main achievement of the country's pioneers of conservation has been the establishment of a system of protected areas where there is the minimum of human interference and which are sufficiently large and well-guarded to ensure the survival of wild fauna and flora. While the DWC is capable of protecting the wildlife within the system of protected areas ensuring the long-term survival of especially large, highly mobile animals outside the network of protected areas has proved more difficult. In the West, with the wholesale over-exploitation of wildlife during the nineteenth century, the system of protected areas has proved highly successful in salvaging a few species from the brink of extinction.

It has also generated strong public support for wildlife conservation. But in Sri Lanka, communities living in the periphery of the reserves are obliged to bear the costs of grazing ungulates and breeding waterfowl, but are denied a reasonable share of the benefits generated by that resource. The result is apathy towards wildlife and downright disrespect for the wildlife regulations imposed by the State, with people encroaching into protected areas, poaching wildlife, promoting cattle grazing, extracting timber illegally, and setting fire to the forest etc. There is a need for a paradigm shift if conservation is to make sense to these people. It is time for a more realistic approach to conservation of renewable resources, including wildlife and protected areas, with their obvious potential to benefit the poor.

For every species we save, we need to create jobs and opportunities to alleviate the poverty of the rural people. To prevent poaching and encroachment, we need to provide alternative means of livelihood for the people, such as organic farming, horticulture, etc. Much could be accomplished if derelict lands can be rehabilitated by growing more fuel wood trees. To prevent the invasion of the protected areas (PAs) by cattle, we need to establish pastures outside the PAs.

Elephants are now being confined to smaller ranges by the expansion of human development that they often raid communities that have replaced them. Clearly PAs can never be large enough to contain such highly mobile species as the elephant, but improvement of the habitat within the PAs through the adoption of appropriate land-use may help reverse the trend to a certain extent. Unless conservation benefits the poor that live along the periphery of PAs, the people concerned will view wildlife more as a liability than an asset.

Bold step

The Government has indeed taken a bold step in bringing Forestry and Wildlife Conservation under one Ministry - the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. It is equally possible that the Coast Conservation Department too might be brought under the same Ministry. Thus the message from the Government is clear: it considers the environment as the number one priority. Furthermore, the Ministry is headed by none other than Hon. Rukman Senanayake who is well-known for his steadfast concern for wildlife and the environment in the past. Such a move augurs well for conservation in general, and it creates an environment free of political innuendo and horse-trading. Therefore no one in the Natural Resources Sector would have any fear of politicizing the sectoral matters.

One of the major issues that confront us in conservation today is the escalating human-elephant conflict. The Asian elephant is one of the most seriously endangered species of large mammals in the world. There are probably about 40,000 in Asia. 10% of which is estimated to occur in Sri Lanka. Although Sri Lanka is less than one-seventh of the island of Sumatra, it seems to support more elephants, despite a high human population. This alone highlights the success of wildlife conservation effort in Sri Lanka.

As a heavily grass-dependent species supplementing its food with woody plants, the elephant in strongly identified with disturbed areas. Today, many of the habitats with high carrying capacity for elephants in Sri Lanka represent areas that were developed for agriculture in the distant past. Of all the terrestrial mammals, elephants seem to require larger areas of natural range.

When elephants lose their range, they die. Therefore they are the first animals to suffer the consequences of development activities. In order to conserve viable populations of the elephant, it is important to ensure that minimum viable habitats are available, and not fragmented. Forest continuity is essential for the movement of elephants from one area to another. Despite the small size of Sri Lanka, the DWC has already made provisions to establish a new national park, the Kandulla NP and link it to the Minneriya-Giritale complex through forest corridors. This will ensure the survival of at least a minimum of 300 elephants that regularly move into Minneriya NP from the adjoining areas.

There are plans to extend the Uda Walawe NP to the north, and to link it with the Lunugamvehera NP through a forest corridor. A more ambitious plan to link the Wilpattu NP with the Kahalla-Pallekele Sanctuary through another forest corridor is under consideration. Such measure would no doubt increase the area that is available to the elephant in Sri Lanka, but that alone is unlike to solve the escalating human-elephant conflict, which seems to have replaced poaching as a major cause of elephant mortality in the island. The key to long term survival of the elephant is two-fold: in areas where elephants and people overlap, the people should be able to derive some tangible benefit from the presence of elephant in their neighbourhood, and land-use compatible with elephant conservation should be promoted.

Many small populations of elephant have become pocketed in small patches of forest surrounded by an agricultural landscape dominated by man. Such pocketed herds have no long-term viability, and hence they need to be captured and relocated to safe areas. But despite the colossal sums of money spent on elephant translocation and elephant drives, they have largely failed. Thus, we need to reconsider our past efforts and come out with some new innovative ideas.

While much of the concern has been on the plight of the elephant, other endangered species continue to be threatened. Five out of the seven species of turtles, all of which are listed as endangered, visit Sri Lanka. In the name of conservation, a number of turtle hatcheries are carrying out ex-situ conservation of turtles along the southwest coast of Sri Lanka. While some hatcheries are run well, many are ignorant of the important ecological issues that surround turtle conservation, and thus have a detrimental impact on the long-term survival of the species.

Turtles

Without understanding the impact of temperature on the sex ratio of turtles they seem to collect and rebury turtle eggs, often subjecting the nests to intense solar radiation throughout the day, thereby promoting the production of a disproportionate number of females. Furthermore, the practice of raising hatchlings in captivity for a number of weeks, months or even years and then releasing them may be popular among tourists, but there are problems associated with such a practice of 'head-starting'.

The best conservation measure is to protect the beaches where female turtles come to lay their eggs. Protection is easier, cheaper and more likely to succeed than head-starting, and other ex-situ measures that are difficult, expensive and more likely to fail. Unlike the elephants, turtles being gentle and unaggressive, their prospects for living alongside mankind are very good.

The Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) has already set a number of areas along the southern coast from Bundala NP to the Ruhuna NP, Another key turtle conservation area is Rekawa, where all five species are know to nest. By incorporating local people to protect these beaches at night, the DWC will enlist the support of the local communities in eco-tourism projects based on turtles. Turtles are among the best ambassadors for nature conservation, as they do not interfere with agriculture, and are totally harmless. Besides, a single nesting turtle becomes a tourists curiosity. Eco-tourism based on turtles can contribute tangible benefits to the local communities.

Eco-tourism can promote the conservation of wildlife and natural resources, and Sri Lanka is so richly endowed with biodiversity that it is referred to as one of the biological hot-spots in the world. Thousands of foreign and local visitors go to the Elephant Orphanage in Pinnawela annually to watch the elephant being cared for. Wild elephants are always the top attraction in any national park. They are the flagship bearers for eco-tourism in Ruhuna, Minneriya, Kaudulla, Gal-Oya, Lahugala-Kitulana, Wasgomuwa and Uda Walawe national Parks.

Bundala National Park has spectacular and diverse bird life that includes migrants such as the flamingo. The Horton Plains have gradually become famous for the leopard and the sambar, while the Sinharaja Forest is unmatched for the number of endemic species it supports. Thus, Sri Lanka is truly a paradise but a paradise that can easily become a hell on earth if eco-tourists do not follow rules and regulations. Thus the importance of education in building public appreciation and support for conserving biodiversity through such eco-tourism programs should not be overlooked. Eco-tourists should be informed and not entertained. They need to be educated rather than diverted. Our national parks and nature reserves should not become a substitute for Disney Land.

We need to accept the need for systematic research as the basis for improved management of our natural resources. Much has happened since our conservation pioneers established the protected areas. Many of these are no longer remote but have become "ecological islands" in a sea of humanity. Approaches made in the 20th century may not work in the 21st century. We need pragmatic and innovative approaches if we are to succeed in natural resources management. The time has come for all the professions in the country to rally round and collaborate with the DWC to make the benefits from conservation reach the largest and most impoverished segment of our population.

We have to ask whether having more and more non-essential things at the expense of essentials like clean water, clean air and clean environment is development?

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Harmful effects of polythene bags

by S. Vasantharuba , PGIA University of Peradeniya

Polythene is a product of the plastic family. Linking together of many ethylene molecules gives polyethylene or polythene. This process is called polymerization-linking together of monomers to give a polymer.

Usually polythene is manufactured by gas phase polymerization. The manufacturing process of polythene does not yield complete polymerization but create different kinds of monomeric vinyl chlorides. Heavy concentration of these substances is highly toxic and may even cause cancer. Polythene is made with presence of benzyl peroxide an organic solution, for example benzene liquid, butane or propane. Polymers provide polythene with improvements in ridigity and flexibility, toughness, scuff and heat resistance and clarity.

The molecules of polymers are so small that bacteria or fungus cannot get through. Moreover they are very tightly bound. Polythene is a very durable thermoplastic product. It does not get decomposed in any natural process even in hundred years. It is not therefore biodegradable and thus not environment friendly. By changing the production process we can get different plastic commodities. Normally low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is used in packaging, lamination and bags preparation. It is more flexible than high-density polyethylene. (HDPE).

The polythene bags were first introduced in our country in the early eighties. The people, who were using paper bags and cloth bags, switched over to the disposable polythene bags step by step. Earlier people had to buy the bags and they had a habit of reusing. But recently the bags are so readily available, cheap and thin that shopkeepers provide polybags with almost all items. Therefore people started to discard the bags just after one use. According to the statistics from Bangladesh, more than 6.5 million polybags are used daily and nearly 5.2 million used polybags are discarded in their capital city Dhaka.

Polythene is said to be one of the major inventions of mankind, which have greatly helped in packing foods and carry things especially kitchen and domestic goods. Polythene bags have many advantages over the traditional cloth and paper bags. Polybags does not tear like paper bags. It does not become filthy like the cloth bags. And even if it does get wet accidentally, it protects the contents within it, like a mother hen protecting its roost from rain. It is strong, sturdy, and reliable. And it comes in different ranges of colours, sizes and quality.

People use polythene their daily life but they are not aware of the procedure of managing it properly. The people habitually throw polythene bags indiscriminately and carelessly in the streets, open spaces and the drains. This will put burdens on the nature's assimilating capacity. In the long term polybags can cause serious environmental hazards and harmful effects on human health. These harmful effects are commonly called as polythene menace. The following reasons will ensure the reduction of polythene bag usage.

* Plastic bags are non-biodegradable. When they are thrown away, they cause potentially eternal havoc - clogging drains, crating backflow in sewage pipes, causing bad smells, water logging and floods.

* Polythene bags are responsible for spreading various diseases through pond like accumulation of sewage. There are more than 80 diseases caused by water borne germs. These germs generate from contaminated and stagnant sources of water. Contamination of water occurs due to irresponsible disposal of polythene bags into the drains and sewage lines. Polythene bags are also used as breeding places for mosquitoes by storing stagnant water.

* The effect of the polybags is deadly in the waters too. Being light they are carried afar and even into the sea, causing immeasurable harm to marine life. Streams and rivers are affected too.

* Polythene will block the rainwater seeping into the soil and greatly reduce recharging of ground water.

* Burying the polythene bags in the mountainous regions continuously may reduces the vegetation and hence soil binding. This will increases the risk of landslides. They also destroy the local eco-system, and retard the soil's carrying capacity.

* The dumping of polythene on ground has no chance to degrade into soil, which becomes unsuitable for any type of construction.

* When dumped in soil polythene does not allow emission of the toxic gases and pollutants from the earth. Sunlight, its ultra violet ray in particular, which acts, as 'vitamin' for natural fertilization of soil cannot pass through the polythene into the soil, subsequently the capacity of soil to yield agricultural produces is diminished. Due to their non-porous nature they seal off air, thus affecting plant life. International Rice Research Institute found that polythene destroys the bacteria of soil causing loss of soil fertility.

* Polybags have harmful effects on animals. Our Dehiwala national zoo has lost many animals to the polythene menace, a gorilla in the eighties, thirty-six deer since 1997, two wallabies, three ostriches, one giraffe and recently an albino deer. Many street roaming cattle and goats and some wild deer also lost their life due to this polythene menace. These animals had eaten polythene with foods little by little over a long period of time. The contents had solidified inside their abdominal cavity pressing against their intestines resulting in their death.

* The use of polythene bags for preserving foods in the refrigerator is dangerous. Some polythene may contain carcinogenic chemical Dethal Hexane due to incomplete polymerization. This chemical may leaches to foods when foods are refrigerated for a long time. Some plastic bags contain toxic dyes that can pass into foodstuffs endangering consumer health. Most of the brightly colored polythene is contain lead and cadmium.

These toxic substances may destroy the human immune system and causes skin diseases.

* Burning polythene bags is dangerous as they release Dioxin and Hydrogen cyanide, the most carcinogenic and toxic substances. Inhalation of the poisonous gas causes severe and chronic health problem. These gases will pollute the air also.

The above-mentioned harmful effects can be minimized by adopting some alternative options. Those are as followed.

* Awareness should be grown through demonstration of the impact of polythene on human health and environment. This will lead the people to be ecology conscious. Government can undertake campaign programme. Government can publicize its anti-plastic campaign through hoardings, posters, banners, newspapers and electronic media.

So that people in general become conscious about their behaviour while they dispose of solid waste including polythene bags. The 3R principle (reduce, reuse and recycle) can adopted for the control and management of polythene bags.

* Another option is to provide with suitable and affordable alternative. Common alternatives is to choose cloth or paper bag.

* Recycling of polythene bags can be encouraged but should be in a controlled and hygienic way without causing any adverse impact on health and environment. But plastics cannot be continuously recycled. Since most polybags are already made of recycled materials, further recycling them is difficult.

* Burning of polythene bags should be done in a closed chamber reducing the chances of releasing poisonous gases into atmosphere and other processes should be done in an environmentally should manner.

* One alternative can be biodegradable plastic and polythene, which are widely used in the developed countries. One such alternative is biodegradable plastic eco foam. Eco foam is similar to polystyrene, which readily bio degrades, dissolves in water and is made from corn. Another biodegradable plastic and polythene is biopol made from renewable materials such as cotton and cornstarch.

* The newly innovated food grade polythene technology can be shared from developed countries. The technology and incentives can be provided to the polythene manufacturers for producing health and environment friendly product.

* Government can resort to economic policy instrument like tax, fine, penalty to address the use of polythene bags and proper disposal of solid waste including polythene bags. These can be implemented in holy places (eg: Sripada, Kataragama), tourist spots ( world's end) and national zoo. * Government can set up many collection points for the disposal of plastic wastes in major cities.

Then these wastes can be recycled or burned in a closed

chamber.

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